{"id":10304,"date":"2010-02-01T11:29:05","date_gmt":"2010-02-01T09:29:05","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=10304"},"modified":"2017-05-25T14:15:50","modified_gmt":"2017-05-25T11:15:50","slug":"sumerden-romaya-ruhban-sinifin-maddiyat-dunyasiyla-bagi-tarihte-tapinak-bankaciligi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2010\/02\/01\/sumerden-romaya-ruhban-sinifin-maddiyat-dunyasiyla-bagi-tarihte-tapinak-bankaciligi","title":{"rendered":"Sumer\u2019den Roma\u2019ya ruhban s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n maddiyat d\u00fcnyas\u0131yla ba\u011f\u0131 Tarihte tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"

Sumerlilerden itibaren tap\u0131naklar daima Eski \u00c7a\u011f ekonomilerinde merkezi bir konumda yer alm\u0131\u015flar, parasal i\u015flere h\u00fckmetmi\u015flerdir. Tap\u0131naklar hem bir g\u00fcven kurumu olarak, ki\u015fi ve kurumlar\u0131n servetlerini emanet ettikleri yerler olmu\u015flar hem de yap\u0131lan \u00f6nemli miktardaki ba\u011f\u0131\u015f ve adaklarla b\u00fcy\u00fck servetlere sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Tap\u0131naklar ellerindeki bu parasal g\u00fcc\u00fc bankac\u0131l\u0131k yaparak de\u011ferlendirmi\u015fler, devletlere ve \u015fah\u0131slara faiz kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 bor\u00e7 vermi\u015flerdir. <\/em><\/p>\n

Erkan Ild\u0131z<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Kent devletlerinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 4. biny\u0131l\u0131n son \u00e7eyre\u011finden itibaren ruhban s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n, binlerce y\u0131l boyunca manevi s\u00f6ylemler \u00f6rt\u00fcs\u00fc alt\u0131nda nas\u0131l maddiyat d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda iktidar g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc ellerinde bulundurmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin say\u0131s\u0131z yaz\u0131l\u0131 belge bulunmaktad\u0131r. Ancak biz bu yaz\u0131m\u0131zda, ruhban s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n, Sumer\u2019den Roma\u2019ya uzanan s\u00fcre\u00e7te tap\u0131naklarda y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bankac\u0131l\u0131k faaliyetleri \u00fczerinde duraca\u011f\u0131z.<\/p>\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, \u201cfaizle para al\u0131p veren; kredi, iskonto, kambiyo i\u015flemleri yapan; kasalar\u0131nda para, de\u011ferli belge, e\u015fya saklayan ve daha ba\u015fka ekonomik etkinliklerde bulunan\u201d birer kurum olan bankalar veya bankerler, t\u00fcm Eski \u00c7a\u011f tarihi boyunca \u00e7e\u015fitli g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcmlerde var olmu\u015ftur. M\u00d6 7. y\u00fczy\u0131lda sikkenin Anadolu\u2019da icad\u0131ndan \u00f6nceki iki biny\u0131l i\u00e7inde bankerlerin faaliyet \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kal\u0131r iken bu tarihten sonra bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 belirleyici unsuru olarak sarrafl\u0131k, mevduat alma ve bor\u00e7 verme faaliyeti \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tap\u0131naklar da bankac\u0131l\u0131k faaliyetleriyle, Eski \u00c7a\u011f bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda her zaman \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Irak\u2019ta Eski \u00c7a\u011f Uruk yerle\u015fim yerinde bulunan Eanna tap\u0131nak alan\u0131nda ele ge\u00e7en \u00e7iviyaz\u0131l\u0131 tabletlerin aras\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da bor\u00e7 senedi (= hubullum) de vard\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

M\u00d6 1. biny\u0131l \u00f6ncesi tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

M\u00d6 4. biny\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru Mezopotamya\u2019da kentle\u015fme olgusuyla birlikte tap\u0131naklar ekonomik etkinli\u011fin oda\u011f\u0131nda yer alm\u0131\u015f, bir tap\u0131nak ekonomisi olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Tap\u0131nak, sadece tar\u0131m\u0131, hayvanc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve el sanatlar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda ticareti de denetim alt\u0131nda tutan, hammadde sa\u011flayan b\u00fcy\u00fck ekonomik bir birimdir. Tap\u0131naklar b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahibi konumunda olmu\u015f ve topraklar\u0131nda ortak\u00e7\u0131lar ve yana\u015fmalar \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (1). B\u00f6ylece servet tap\u0131naklarda toplanm\u0131\u015f ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla rahiplik kurumu, krall\u0131\u011fa oranla s\u00fcrekli zenginle\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Ur\u2019da bulunan tabletlerden bir k\u0131sm\u0131 bilim insanlar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan \u201ctarla metinleri\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tapu senedi mahiyetindeki bu belgeler, III. Ur S\u00fclalesi zaman\u0131ndan itibaren ticaret senetlerinden kolayca ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in yuvarlak tabletlere yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (2).<\/p>\n

Sumer \u00fclke ekonomisinin merkezinde yer alan tap\u0131naklar, ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan d\u00fczenli ve hat\u0131r\u0131 say\u0131l\u0131r \u00fcr\u00fcn fazlas\u0131n\u0131n hem merkezde toplanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f hem giderek daha da karma\u015f\u0131kla\u015fan bir yeniden da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015ftir (3).<\/p>\n

Irak\u2019ta Eski \u00c7a\u011f Uruk yerle\u015fim yerinde bulunan Eanna tap\u0131nak alan\u0131nda ele ge\u00e7en tabletlerin y\u00fczde 85\u2019i ekonomik i\u015flemlerle ilgili idari belgelerdir. Tah\u0131llar\u0131n depo edilmesi ve bunun idari tarz\u0131, hayvan s\u00fcr\u00fclerinin idaresi ve tekstillerle ili\u015fkili metinler, bu belgeler aras\u0131ndaki en b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00fc\u00e7 grubu temsil etmi\u015ftir. Ayr\u0131ca bal\u0131k ve metalleri, yiyeceklerin da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m\u0131 ve tarlalar\u0131n boyutlar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7eren tabletlere de rastlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (4).<\/p>\n

Erken Hanedanl\u0131k III D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde Laga\u015f \u015fehrinde tap\u0131nak depolar\u0131na giren ve \u00e7\u0131kan mallar kaydedilmi\u015ftir. Tap\u0131nak depolar\u0131nda toplanan bu mallardan \u015fehrin tap\u0131nak ve saray\u0131n\u0131n gereksinimi kar\u015f\u0131land\u0131ktan sonra, t\u00fcketim fazlas\u0131 mallar memlekette bulunmayan ta\u015f, maden ve kereste ile de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Di\u011fer Sumer \u015fehirlerinde de benzer bir ekonomik d\u00fczen uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ur \u015fehri kaz\u0131lar\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131lan binlerce ekonomik belge III. Ur S\u00fclalesi D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde ekonomide b\u00fcy\u00fck bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne i\u015faret eder. Bu belgelerin \u00e7o\u011fu bor\u00e7 senetleridir (=hubullum) (5).<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Sel\u00e7uk\u2019ta bulunan ve Antik D\u00f6nem\u2019in 7 Harikas\u0131\u2019ndan biri kabul edilen Ephesos Artemis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, o d\u00f6nemde tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n da \u00f6nemli bir merkeziydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Tap\u0131naklar ayn\u0131 zamanda bir banka gibi faizli bor\u00e7 para vermi\u015f, kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda teminat veya kefil alm\u0131\u015f, borcunu \u00f6demeyenlere kar\u015f\u0131 haciz uygulam\u0131\u015f, hatta borcunu \u00f6demeyen \u00f6zg\u00fcr vatanda\u015flar\u0131 k\u00f6lele\u015ftirerek satm\u0131\u015f ve alaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tahsil etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Tart\u0131 ve \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc aletlerinin standardizasyonu, faiz oranlar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fczenlenmesi gibi pratik i\u015fler de tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n yetki alan\u0131nda yer alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Mezopotamya\u2019da tap\u0131nak ile saray aras\u0131nda ekonomik iktidar y\u00f6n\u00fcnden arkaik d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren bir g\u00fc\u00e7ler m\u00fccadelesi olmu\u015f, iktidar zaman zaman el de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015f ve bu durum y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyu devam etmi\u015ftir. Ancak saray da faizli bor\u00e7 verme konular\u0131nda, tap\u0131naklara benzer bir rol \u00fcstlenmi\u015ftir. Eski Babil D\u00f6nemi\u2019nden sonra saray\u0131n ekonomik i\u015flevi artm\u0131\u015f, adalet mekanizmas\u0131 din etkisinden \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flay\u0131nca tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n bu rol\u00fcnde azalma olmu\u015ftur (6).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Eski Yunan\u2019da tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131ndan beri toplumsal ekonomide \u00f6nemli bir yeri olan tap\u0131naklar\u0131n, bor\u00e7 para piyasas\u0131ndaki a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131, sikke kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flamas\u0131yla daha da artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Eski Yunan bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n temelinde bulunan emanet\u00e7ilik, mevduat ve bor\u00e7 verme, Homeros zaman\u0131ndan beri yaz\u0131l\u0131 kaynaklardan bilinmektedir. Ancak sikkenin M\u00d6 7. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131yla hem tap\u0131nak hem de \u00f6zel bankac\u0131l\u0131k b\u00fcy\u00fck bir at\u0131l\u0131m yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Ephesos\u2019taki Artemis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, Atina Akropol\u00fc\u2019ndeki Athena Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, Delphoi Apollon Kutsal Bilicilik Merkezi ve Delos\u2019ta Apollon Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n bankac\u0131l\u0131k faaliyetleri b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (7).<\/p>\n

Tap\u0131naklar ve k\u00fclt merkezlerinin \u00e7o\u011fu, kabul ettikleri hediyeler ve adaklar yoluyla birikim yaparak b\u00fcy\u00fck hazinelere sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Tap\u0131naklar ayr\u0131ca elde ettikleri m\u00fclkleri de nakde d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrebilmi\u015flerdir (8). Ayr\u0131ca Tanr\u0131lar\u0131n g\u00fcvenli korumas\u0131 alt\u0131nda olduklar\u0131ndan, her zaman kamu veya \u00f6zele ait pek \u00e7ok servet, tap\u0131naklara saklanmak \u00fczere emaneten getirilmi\u015ftir. \u201cTap\u0131naklar\u0131n devletler\u00fcst\u00fc bir konumu vard\u0131. Hem yerel hem de yabanc\u0131 h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar taraf\u0131ndan tap\u0131naklara de\u011ferli hediyeler verilmekteydi. Bunlar\u0131 korumak i\u00e7in hazine daireleri yap\u0131ld\u0131. Buralar ayn\u0131 zamanda devlet paras\u0131n\u0131n saklanmas\u0131nda da kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131. Ayn\u0131 do\u011frultuda tap\u0131naklar yabanc\u0131lar\u0131n mallar\u0131n\u0131n sakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerler haline de geldi. Tap\u0131naklar bu ama\u00e7la sadece h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar ve devletler taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131lmad\u0131, zengin \u00f6zel \u015fah\u0131slar da varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 tap\u0131naklarda korumaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc tap\u0131naklar\u0131n kutsiyeti \u00f6nemli bir g\u00fcvenlik yaratmaktayd\u0131. Bu bak\u0131mdan en b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6rnek Ephesos Artemision\u2019udur. Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n sonlar\u0131ndan itibaren bu tap\u0131nak, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 emanet\u00e7ilikle \u00fcnlenmi\u015fti.\u201d (9)<\/p>\n

\"\"
Atina Akropol\u00fc\u2019nde M\u00d6 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lda yer alan tap\u0131nak ve di\u011fer yap\u0131lar\u0131n temsili \u00e7izimi. Buradaki Athena Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, bankac\u0131l\u0131k alan\u0131nda etkin faaliyete bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Tap\u0131naklar, emanet\u00e7ilik yapman\u0131n \u00f6tesinde \u00e7e\u015fitli nedenlerle sikkelerin topland\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir merkez haline gelmi\u015f ve bu durum onlar\u0131, sikke ayar kontrol\u00fc, farkl\u0131 sikkeler aras\u0131nda pariteyi bilme vb konularda da uzmanla\u015fmaya itmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, M\u00d6 548\u2019de Delphoi\u2019de bir tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n yanmas\u0131 sonras\u0131, t\u00fcm Eski Yunan d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda yeni bir tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n in\u015fas\u0131 i\u00e7in para toplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7e\u015fitli kentlerden sikkeler halinde en az\u0131ndan 300 talent ba\u011f\u0131\u015f gelmi\u015ftir. Atina\u2019n\u0131n eski ve soylu ailelerinden Alkmaionid\u2019ler bu i\u015fte, yani farkl\u0131 sikkelerin de\u011fi\u015ftirilmesinde b\u00fcy\u00fck rol oynam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Delphoi\u2019lu kurnaz rahip tabakas\u0131, hesap i\u015flemlerini kolayla\u015ft\u0131rmak ve bu i\u015ften tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 k\u00e2rl\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmak \u00fczere bir Delphoi sikkesi darp ettirmi\u015fler ve bu amphiktyon (birlik) sikkesini Attika\u2019n\u0131n ortak sikkesi haline getirmi\u015flerdir (10).<\/p>\n

Delphoi\u2019daki tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n, elindeki paralar\u0131 yerli-yabanc\u0131 devletlere bor\u00e7 olarak verdi\u011fi de bilinmektedir (11). Benzer \u015fekilde Atina Akropol\u00fc\u2019ndeki Athena Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 5. ve 4. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda sahip oldu\u011fu hazinelerle, verdi\u011fi bor\u00e7larla Atina\u2019da b\u00fcy\u00fck rol oynam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (12).<\/p>\n

Bir ba\u015fka \u00f6nemli para toplama i\u015flemi de, Attika-Delos Denzi Birli\u011fi \u00fcyelerinin y\u0131ll\u0131k birlik aidat\u0131 \u00f6demeleri olmu\u015ftur. Attika birlik kasas\u0131 Atina Akropol\u00fc\u2019ne g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fclmeden \u00f6nce Delos\u2019ta bulunmaktayd\u0131 (13). Toplanan y\u0131ll\u0131k aidat 600-1200 talent aras\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fmekteydi. Deniz Birli\u011fi\u2019ne (M\u00d6 478\/77\u2019den itibaren) girmeden \u00f6nce kendi darp ettikleri sikkeleri kullanan birlik \u00fcyesi \u015fehirler, \u00f6demelerinde do\u011fal olarak kendi yerel sikkelerini kullanmaktayd\u0131. Bu sikkeler aras\u0131nda \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fim kuru vard\u0131. Delos\u2019ta toplanan bu paralar\u0131n hesaplanmas\u0131nda ve kontrol\u00fcnde tap\u0131naktaki uzman sarraflar\u0131n g\u00f6revli olduklar\u0131na ku\u015fku yoktur (14).<\/p>\n

Delos asl\u0131nda bir tap\u0131nak devletiydi; d\u00fczenli bir gelire sahipti ve bu gelir tap\u0131nak mensuplar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netilmekteydi. Buradaki tap\u0131nakta \u00e7e\u015fitli hazineler toplanmaktayd\u0131; \u00f6zel servetlerin ya da yabanc\u0131 devletlerin hazinelerinin korunmas\u0131na y\u00f6nelik bir hizmet sunulmaktayd\u0131. M\u00d6 375\u2019te Delos\u2019ta 13 devletin amphiktyon hesab\u0131nda 47 talent bulunmaktayd\u0131 (Ditt.<\/em> Syll<\/em>.\u00b3 153). Y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r Delos\u2019ta kirac\u0131, kiralayan ve bor\u00e7lular\u0131n nakit i\u015flemleri tap\u0131naklar taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmekteydi. Delos\u2019taki tap\u0131nakta muhafaza edilen emanet hesaplar hakk\u0131nda, M\u00d6 179\u2019a ait envanter kay\u0131tlar\u0131 iyi fikir verir. D\u00f6rt s\u0131ra halinde dizilmi\u015f k\u00fcplerde (stamnoi – \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9) paralar saklanmaktayd\u0131. Hangi k\u00fcp\u00fcn nereden geldi\u011fi, i\u00e7indeki miktar kay\u0131tl\u0131yd\u0131 (15).<\/p>\n

\"\"
Yunanistan\u2019daki Delphoi Apollon Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fan kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131. Delphoi Apollon Kutsal Bilicilik Merkezi, Antik D\u00f6nem\u2019de \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00fclkelerden gelen ziyaret\u00e7ileriyle dolup ta\u015fan bir yer olmu\u015ftur. Buras\u0131 ayn\u0131 zamanda tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda da etkin bir merkez olmu\u015ftur.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ekonomist-tarih\u00e7i M. I. Finley, Antik D\u00f6nem devletlerinin nakit para bulundurma al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, olas\u0131 nakit darl\u0131klar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 bir ihtiyat ak\u00e7esi olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcr ve Delos \u00f6rne\u011fini verir: \u201cM\u00d6 2. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, muhte\u015fem zenginli\u011fe sahip Delos\u2019taki Apollon Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, Klasik D\u00f6nem Atina\u2019s\u0131nda Athena Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, hem kendi tasarruflar\u0131n\u0131 hem de Delos \u015fehrinin birikimlerini, bir \u015fekilde korunan kutsal odas\u0131nda saklam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Burada para olarak, di\u011fer tap\u0131naklarda oldu\u011fu gibi sikke halinde bulunmayan ve m\u00fccevherlerden olu\u015fan hazineden de\u011fil, sikkelerden s\u00f6z ediyorum). Bu iki hazine, her biri \u201ci\u00e7erisine konulan \u015feylerin t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc belirten i\u015faretler ta\u015f\u0131yan\u201d \u00e7e\u015fitli k\u00fcplerden olu\u015fan bir zenginli\u011fe sahipti ve \u201ckutsal hazine\u201d ve \u201ckamu hazinesi\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Delos asl\u0131nda \u00e7ok fazla birikime sahipti -k\u00fcplerden bir grubu 48.000 drakhmeden fazla sikke alabiliyordu ve M\u00d6 188\u2019den 169\u2019a kadar hi\u00e7 a\u00e7\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131- ve adan\u0131n hem k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck hem de milletleraras\u0131 kutsal bir alan olmas\u0131 gibi kendine has karakteri nedeniyle genelde b\u00fct\u00fcn Antik \u00c7a\u011f devletleri i\u00e7in bir model te\u015fkil etmemi\u015ftir. Ancak hazinelerin imparatorlu\u011fun farkl\u0131 merkezlerine yay\u0131lmas\u0131 ve hazinede nakit para bulundurma ilkesi, Roma imparatorlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yeni bir imparator ba\u015fa geldi\u011finde askerlere para da\u011f\u0131tmak adet olmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, da\u011f\u0131t\u0131lan para, k\u00fcplerde h\u00e2lihaz\u0131rda mevcut olan para miktar\u0131yla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 olmu\u015ftur.\u201d (16)<\/p>\n

Sava\u015f zaman\u0131 belirli bir korunma olana\u011f\u0131 sunan, de\u011ferli nesneleri b\u00fcnyesinde muhafaza ederek emanet\u00e7ilik yapan tap\u0131naklar, ayn\u0131 zamanda hem devletlere hem de \u00f6zel ki\u015filere faizli bor\u00e7 para da vermi\u015ftir. Baz\u0131 tap\u0131naklar \u00f6zellikle bor\u00e7 vererek zenginliklerini zamanla art\u0131rma yoluna gitmi\u015ftir. Buna bir \u00f6rnek, Delos\u2019taki \u00fcnl\u00fc Apollon Kutsal Alan\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. Delos\u2019ta bankac\u0131l\u0131k 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hellenistik D\u00f6nem\u2019de Delos \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ticari merkez olmu\u015f ve bankac\u0131l\u0131k da ada ekonomisinin \u00f6nemli bir par\u00e7as\u0131 haline gelmi\u015ftir (17). \u00d6rne\u011fin Delos Apollon Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n, M\u00d6 377\u2019den 373\u2019e kadar 43 talent ve 2600 drakhmesi yabanc\u0131 \u015fehirlere, 6 talent ve 620 drakhmesi de \u00f6zel ki\u015filere, Deloslulara ve yabanc\u0131lara olmak \u00fczere toplam 49 talent ve 3220 drakhme bor\u00e7 verdi\u011fi bilinmektedir (18).<\/p>\n

Delos\u2019ta tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 arkeolojik buluntularla iyi bir \u015fekilde belgelenmi\u015ftir. Buradaki tarihi s\u00fcre\u00e7 \u015f\u00f6yle olmu\u015ftur: Ba\u015fta sadece emanet\u00e7ilik yapan Delos\u2019taki tap\u0131nak, daha sonra Attika-Delos Deniz Birli\u011fi\u2019ne bor\u00e7 vermi\u015ftir. Tap\u0131nak bir s\u00fcre sonra kendi yurtta\u015flar\u0131na da bor\u00e7 vermeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Burada y\u0131ll\u0131k hesaplar, ta\u015flara i\u015flenmi\u015ftir. Yer yer eksiklikleri olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen M\u00d6 433\u2019ten yakla\u015f\u0131k 2. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131na kadarki kay\u0131tlar g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve buradan \u015f\u00f6yle bir g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r: Mevduat ve de\u011ferli nesneler kabul edilmekte ve bunlar y\u00fczde 10 faizle bor\u00e7 olarak verilmektedir. Kredi miktarlar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr, \u00f6rne\u011fin bir \u015fahsa veya \u015fehre verilen kredi en fazla 50.000 drakhmedir ama ortalama \u00e7ok daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr. M\u00d6 377\u2019de verilen kredilerin toplam\u0131 50 talentten= 300.000 drakhmeden fazla de\u011fildir; e\u011fer t\u00fcm bor\u00e7lular bor\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6demi\u015f olsalar, bankan\u0131n o y\u0131l elde edece\u011fi faiz geliri 30.000 drakhme olacakt\u0131r. Delos Adas\u0131, Atina\u2019n\u0131n y\u00f6netiminde oldu\u011fu s\u00fcre boyunca (M\u00d6 314\u2019e kadar) \u00e7e\u015fitli Kyklad Adalar\u0131na bor\u00e7 para vermi\u015ftir; Atina\u2019n\u0131n iktidarda olmas\u0131 buna olanak sa\u011flamaktayd\u0131, ancak buna ra\u011fmen daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc devletlere ve \u00f6zellikle bunlar\u0131n halk\u0131na bor\u00e7 verilmesi s\u00f6z konusu olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 314\u2019ten sonra ise sadece Delos \u015fehrine ve yurtta\u015flar\u0131na bor\u00e7 verilmi\u015ftir. \u015e\u00fcphesiz verilen bor\u00e7 kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ipotek de al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (19).<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bodrum\u2019un hemen kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda yer alan Kos (\u0130stank\u00f6y) Adas\u0131\u2019ndaki Asklepion Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n temsili \u00e7izimi. Sa\u011fl\u0131k Tanr\u0131s\u0131 Asklepios ad\u0131na in\u015fa edilen kutsal alan ayn\u0131 zamanda tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 alan\u0131nda da faaliyet g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Delos\u2019ta \u00f6zel bankalar da faaliyet g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir, ancak bunlar\u0131n yapt\u0131klar\u0131 i\u015f esas olarak tap\u0131nak paralar\u0131n\u0131 banka mevduat\u0131 olarak y\u00f6netmekten ibaret kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na Anadolu\u2019dan en eski \u00f6rnek olarak, Ephesos Atremis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 verilebilir (20). M\u00d6 6. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri Ephesos\u2019ta tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde faizli bor\u00e7 verildi\u011fi bilinmektedir. Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n gelirleriyle ilgili bir yaz\u0131tta ergazesthai (\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9) s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ge\u00e7mekte ve bu Hogarth taraf\u0131ndan \u201cmake money\u201d anlam\u0131nda yorumlanarak \u201c…. a statement of bankers profit\u201d \u015feklinde ifade edilmektedir (21).<\/p>\n

Anadolu\u2019dan bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rnek de Athena \u0130lias Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. Bu tap\u0131naktan bor\u00e7 para alm\u0131\u015f olan kentlerin isimlerinin yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 77 y\u0131l\u0131na ait bir yaz\u0131tta \u015fu kentlerin isimleri g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir: Gargara, \u0130lion, Dardanos, Skepsis, Assos, Aleksandreia Troas, Abydos, Lampsakos (bkz. IGR<\/em> IV 197= OGI<\/em> 444= Herm.<\/em> LXI [1926], 133 vd= SEG<\/em> IV 644) (22).<\/p>\n

Bat\u0131 Anadolu k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131na \u00e7ok yak\u0131n bir konumdaki Kos (\u0130stank\u00f6y) Adas\u0131\u2019ndaki Asklepios Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019nda ele ge\u00e7en M\u00d6 1. y\u00fczy\u0131la ait bir yaz\u0131tta, \u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5[\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0]\u03b5\u03b6\u03b1\u03c2 (SEG <\/em>344 I. 2-3) \u015feklinde, \u201cTanr\u0131n\u0131n bankas\u0131\u201d ya da \u201ckutsal banka\u201d olarak okunabilecek bir ifade ge\u00e7mektedir. Ancak Eski Yunan metinlerinde tap\u0131naklar\u0131n kendilerini hi\u00e7bir zaman \u201cTanr\u0131n\u0131n bankas\u0131\u201d ya da \u201ckutsal banka\u201d olarak adland\u0131rmad\u0131klar\u0131 bilinmektedir. Bu metnin benzerine ba\u015fka yerde de rastlanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu nedenle yaz\u0131t\u0131n tap\u0131nakta kullan\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Ancak yaz\u0131t \u00e7ok y\u0131pranm\u0131\u015f ve metinde pek \u00e7ok bo\u015fluk olsa da, yaz\u0131tta, tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n y\u00f6neticileri taraf\u0131ndan hac\u0131lar\u0131n paralar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirmek ve Tanr\u0131n\u0131n fonlar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6netmek amac\u0131yla i\u015fletilen bir bankadan s\u00f6z edilmektedir (23).<\/p>\n

Tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle, demos<\/strong>\u2019lar ya da demos seviyesindeki tap\u0131naklar taraf\u0131ndan verilen bor\u00e7lar\u0131n, k\u0131rsal kesimdeki sikke gereksinimine i\u015faret etti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. M\u00d6 450-440 civar\u0131nda Rhamnos\u2019taki Nemesis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n, 200 veya 300 drakhmelik sabit miktarlarda, toplam 51.400 drakhme tutar\u0131nda verilmi\u015f kredisi oldu\u011fu saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck tutarl\u0131 bu krediler, k\u0131rsal alanda k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin sikke gereksinimini kar\u015f\u0131lamaya y\u00f6nelik olarak verilmi\u015f olmal\u0131d\u0131r (24).<\/p>\n

Tap\u0131naklarda emanete al\u0131nan servetler ya kutsal alan kompleksi i\u00e7inde bulunan hazine binas\u0131nda (thesauros) veya naos<\/strong>\u2019un (cella) arka taraf\u0131ndaki hazine odas\u0131nda (opisthodomos) saklanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu hazine binalar\u0131n\u0131n veya odalar\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131p kapanmas\u0131 belirli bir t\u00f6rensel prosed\u00fcr gerektirmekteydi. Tap\u0131naklar\u0131n gelir giderlerinin y\u00f6neticisi konumunda, bazen tek bir memur, bazen \u00fcyeleri d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcml\u00fc g\u00f6rev yapabilen tamiai<\/strong> (haznedarlar) denen bir kurul vard\u0131. Prostatai (\u03a0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9) ise kutsal hazineyi a\u00e7mada rahip ile birlikte hareket etmekteydi; bunlar, tamiai (\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03b1\u03b9) ve hierophlakes (\u2018\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2) ile beraber, hazineye giren ve \u00e7\u0131kan paran\u0131n bir raporunu tutmakla g\u00f6revliydiler (25). Sonu\u00e7 olarak \u201cdevlet veya tap\u0131nak hazine dairelerinin a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 \u00f6zel t\u00f6renlerle, belirli aral\u0131klarla ve pek \u00e7ok g\u00f6revlinin kat\u0131lmas\u0131yla yap\u0131lan bir operasyondu.\u201d (26) \u0130\u015fte bu prosed\u00fcrlerden kurtulmak isteyen devlet y\u00f6neticileri, finansal i\u015flemleri h\u0131zland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in iki farkl\u0131 yola ba\u015fvurmu\u015flard\u0131r. Bunlardan ilki, devlet gelirlerinin bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131, ekonomide art\u0131k belirli bir yer edinmi\u015f olan \u00f6zel bankalarda mevduat olarak tutmak olmu\u015ftur. B\u00f6ylece acil durumlarda \u00f6zel bankalardaki paralar\u0131 h\u0131zla kullanmalar\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olabilmekteydi. \u0130kinci yol ise, devlet bankalar\u0131 kurmak oldu; b\u00f6ylece devlet paras\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zel bankalarda tutulmas\u0131n\u0131n getirece\u011fi risklerden (banka iflas\u0131 vb) sak\u0131n\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmaktayd\u0131. Her iki yolun da kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131, ekonomide tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u00f6zel ve devlet bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n rol\u00fcn\u00fc art\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Roma\u2019da tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Roma Devleti zaman i\u00e7inde g\u00fc\u00e7lendik\u00e7e, Eski Yunan co\u011frafyas\u0131nda ad\u0131m ad\u0131m kendi egemenli\u011fini kurmu\u015f, fakat mevcut k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131y\u0131 da aynen s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 Roma D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde de i\u015flevini de\u011fi\u015fmeden korumu\u015ftur (27). Yani tap\u0131naklar ve k\u00fclt merkezleri, ald\u0131klar\u0131 hediyeler ve adaklar yoluyla sahip olduklar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck hazineleri, faizli bor\u00e7 vererek art\u0131rmaya devam etmi\u015ftir (28). Belki de tap\u0131naklarda bu d\u00f6nemde, \u00f6zel ki\u015fi ve bankerlerden daha fazla mevduat toplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (29). Ayr\u0131ca tap\u0131naklar emanet\u00e7ilik i\u015flevlerini de eskiden oldu\u011fu gibi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdir. \u00d6rne\u011fin Iulius Caesar, \u015fahsi servetine ait 700 milyon sestertius\u2019u Ops Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019na emaneten koymu\u015ftu. Caesar, paran\u0131n \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 \u0130\u00e7 Sava\u015f\u2019ta yenilgiye u\u011frayan Pompeius ve yanda\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n el konan mallar\u0131ndan elde etmi\u015fti. Iulius Caesar\u2019\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra, Antonius bu paray\u0131 devlet hazinesinden alm\u0131\u015f, Iulius Caesar\u2019\u0131n acta<\/strong>\u2019s\u0131na not d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemesine kar\u015f\u0131n, ger\u00e7ekte kendi bor\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6demek i\u00e7in kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Cic. Phil.<\/em> I, VI.17) (30). Tap\u0131naklar\u0131n emanet\u00e7ili\u011fi, baz\u0131 tiyatro eserlerine de konu olmu\u015ftur. \u00d6rne\u011fin Latin yazar Titus Maccius Plautus\u2019un Bacchides<\/em> adl\u0131 tiyatro oyununun (31) bir sahnesinde Ephesos Artemis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019na emaneten bir miktar para b\u0131rak\u0131lmas\u0131 betimlenir.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Yunanistan\u2019da Marathon yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda yer alan Rhamnos Nemesis Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fan kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131. Bu tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n M\u00d6 450-440 civar\u0131nda, 200 veya 300 drakhmelik sabit miktarlarda, toplam 51.400 drakhme tutar\u0131nda verilmi\u015f kredisi oldu\u011fu saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Roma D\u00f6nemi tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin \u015fu vurguya yapmak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr ki, Delos\u2019taki tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemi bu d\u00f6nemde daha da \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Roma, Ege ve Akdeniz\u2019de egemenli\u011fini peki\u015ftirdi\u011finde, Eski Yunan D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde deniz ticaretinde a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 \u00f6neme sahip olan Rhodos bu konumunu kaybetmi\u015f, Delos, Roma D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde adeta uluslararas\u0131 serbest bir pazar haline gelmi\u015ftir. Delos Apollon Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 da bu canl\u0131 piyasada bir mali kurulu\u015f olarak daha aktif bir faaliyet i\u00e7inde olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

Roma\u2019daki tap\u0131nak bankac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin farkl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler de bulunmaktad\u0131r. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerden birine g\u00f6re, \u201cger\u00e7ekte Roma\u2019da hi\u00e7bir zaman, Yunanlar\u0131n kutsal yerleri ayn\u0131 zamanda tasarruf sand\u0131klar\u0131 ve kredi veren kurumlar gibi kulland\u0131klar\u0131 \u015fekilde, d\u00fcnya \u00e7ap\u0131nda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015f bir yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131 olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr faaliyetler daima \u00f6zel \u015fah\u0131slar taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr ve bu ba\u011flamda bu ki\u015filerden banker diye bahsetmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr.\u201d (32)<\/p>\n

Son olarak Roma\u2019daki bor\u00e7 ili\u015fkileri kapsam\u0131nda H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n konuya yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131na da de\u011finmekte yarar var. Hz. \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fda \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 verilen paran\u0131n faiz getirmesi yasak say\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Roma \u0130mparatorluk D\u00f6nemi\u2019nde faiz i\u015fiyle paray\u0131 \u00e7o\u011faltmak normal bir i\u015fti ve bu H\u0131ristiyan inan\u00e7lar\u0131na da ters d\u00fc\u015fmemekteydi. Ancak daha sonra kilisenin tutumu \u00fc\u00e7 evreden ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Birinci evrede, kilise babalar\u0131, bilginleri ve kons\u00fcller faizle \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 verme usul\u00fc ile amans\u0131z bir \u015fekilde m\u00fccadele emi\u015flerdir. Luka \u0130ncili<\/em>\u2019nde faiz haramd\u0131r. Kilise babalar\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda faizle tefecilik aras\u0131nda bir ay\u0131r\u0131m yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130kinci evrede faizle \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 verme yasa\u011f\u0131 klasik bir kurum haline getirilmi\u015ftir. \u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc evrede ise olaylar\u0131n etkisi alt\u0131nda kalan kilise yava\u015f yava\u015f faizle \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 vermeyi kabule yana\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Sonu\u00e7<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Sumerlilerden itibaren tap\u0131naklar daima Eski \u00c7a\u011f ekonomilerinde merkezi bir konumda yer alm\u0131\u015flar, parasal i\u015flere h\u00fckmetmi\u015flerdir. Tap\u0131naklar hem bir g\u00fcven kurumu olarak, ki\u015fi ve kurumlar\u0131n servetlerini emanet ettikleri yerler olmu\u015flar hem de yap\u0131lan \u00f6nemli miktardaki ba\u011f\u0131\u015f ve adaklarla b\u00fcy\u00fck servetlere sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Tap\u0131naklar ellerindeki bu parasal g\u00fcc\u00fc bankac\u0131l\u0131k yaparak de\u011ferlendirmi\u015fler, devletlere ve \u015fah\u0131slara faiz kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 bor\u00e7 vermi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

D\u0130PNOTLAR<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) H. J. Nissen, Ana Hatlar\u0131yla Mezopotamya, \u0130stanbul, 2004, s.96; J. Oates, Babil, Ankara, 2004, s. 26.<\/p>\n

2) F. K\u0131nal, Eski Mezopotamya Tarihi, Ankara, 1983. s.173-174.<\/p>\n

3) G. Ifrah, Bir G\u00f6lgenin Pe\u015finde Rakamlar\u0131n Evrensel Tarihi, C. 1, (\u00c7ev. K. Din\u00e7er), Ankara, 1995, s.8.<\/p>\n

4) \u00d6. \u00c7evik, Arkeolojik Kal\u0131nt\u0131lar I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Tarihte \u0130lk Kentler ve Kentle\u015fme S\u00fcreci Kuramsal Bir De\u011ferlendirme, \u0130stanbul, 2005, s.37.<\/p>\n

5) K\u0131nal, a.g.e, s.157-158, 160.<\/p>\n

6) Oates, a.g.e., s.184.<\/p>\n

7) J. Irmscher ve R. Johne, \u201cBankwesen\u201d, Lexikon der Antike, Wiesbaden, 1977; R. Bogaert, \u201cGeld\u201d, RAC,<\/em> C. 9, s.26; B. Laum, \u201cBanken\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.68-82.<\/p>\n

8) M. I. Finley, Antik \u00c7a\u011f Ekonomisi, (\u00c7ev. H. P. Erdemir), \u0130stanbul, 2007, s.137.<\/p>\n

9) B. Laum, \u201cBanken\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.68-82; bu konuda ayr\u0131ca O. Benndorf\u2019un anlat\u0131mlar\u0131 i\u00e7in bkz. Forschungen in Ephesos,<\/em> \u00d6sterr. Institut I<\/em> , 1906, s.261.<\/p>\n

10) E. Ziebarth, \u201cTrapeza\u201d, RE, C. 12, s.2194-2207.<\/p>\n

11) B. Laum, \u201cBanken\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.68-82.<\/p>\n

12) B. Laum, \u201cAnleihen\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.25.<\/p>\n

13) B. Laum, \u201cBanken\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.71.<\/p>\n

14) Ziebarth, a.g.y., s.2195.<\/p>\n

15) Ziebarth, a.g.y., s.2198, 2200.<\/p>\n

16) Finley, a.g.e., s.208.<\/p>\n

17) G. Billeter, Geschichte des Zinsfusses im griechisch-r\u00f6mischen Altertum bis auf Justinian, 1898, (yeni bask\u0131 1970), s. 9 vd; B. Laum, \u201cBanken\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.68-82.<\/p>\n

18) R. Bogaert, Grundz\u00fcge des Bankwesens im alten Griechenland, Konstanz, 1986, s.26<\/p>\n

19) T. Pekary, Die Wirtschaft der griechisch-r\u00f6mischen Antike, Wiesbaden, 1976, s.36.<\/p>\n

20) B. Laum, \u201cAnleihen\u201d, RE, Ek C. 4, s.25. Ayr\u0131ca bkz. O. Benndorf, Forschungen in Ephesos, Viyana,\u00a01905.<\/p>\n

21) D. G. Hogarth (Yay. Haz.), Excavations at Ephesus: the Archaic Artemisia, 2 cilt, 1908, s.130 ve 136.<\/p>\n

22) D. Magie, Anadolu\u2019da Romal\u0131lar-3 Bat\u0131 Anadolu Kent Devletleri, \u0130stanbul, 2003, s.182.<\/p>\n

23) R. Bogaert, Banques et banquiers dans les cit\u00e9s grecques,<\/em> Leyden, 1968, s.39.<\/p>\n

24) C. Howgego, Sikkelerin I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Eski\u00e7a\u011f Tarihi, \u0130stanbul, 1998, s.25.<\/p>\n

25) Magie, a.g.e., s.16, 128-129.<\/p>\n

26) R. Bogaert, Grundz\u00fcge des Bankwesens im alten Griechenland, Konstanz, 1986, s.22.<\/p>\n

27) R. Bogaert, RAC, \u201cGeld\u201d maddesi, C. IX; H. Kloft, Die Wirtschaft des Imperium Romanum, Mainz, 2006.<\/p>\n

28) Finley, a.g.e, s.137.<\/p>\n

29) Bogaert, a.g.y., s.838.<\/p>\n

30) Cicero, orationes Philippicae in M. <\/em>Antonium = T\u00fcrk\u00e7e \u00c7ev. Cicero, Philippicae S\u00f6ylevleri<\/em> (I), (\u00c7ev. F. G\u00fcl \u00d6zakt\u00fcrk), Ankara, 1968.<\/p>\n

31) Plautus, \u00c7\u00f6mlek ve Di\u011fer Oyunlar-\u00c7\u00f6mlek, Amphitryon, Bu\u011fday Kurdu, \u00c7ifte Bakkhis\u2019ler, Urgan-, \u0130stanbul, 1974.<\/p>\n

32) F. DeMartino, Wirtschaftgeschichte des alten Rom, M\u00fcnih, 1985, s.174.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

KISALTMALAR<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ditt. Syll<\/strong>.: W. Dittenberger Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum<\/p>\n

Herm<\/strong>.: Hermes: Zeitschrift f. Klassiche Philologie<\/p>\n

IGR<\/strong>: Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes<\/p>\n

OGI<\/strong>: W. Dittenberger Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae<\/p>\n

RAC<\/strong>: Reallexikon f\u00fcr Antike und Christentum<\/p>\n

RE<\/strong>: Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll Real-Encyclop\u00e4die d. class. Altertumswissenschaft.<\/p>\n

SEG<\/strong>: Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Sumerlilerden itibaren tap\u0131naklar daima Eski \u00c7a\u011f ekonomilerinde merkezi bir konumda yer alm\u0131\u015flar, parasal i\u015flere h\u00fckmetmi\u015flerdir. Tap\u0131naklar hem bir g\u00fcven kurumu olarak, ki\u015fi ve kurumlar\u0131n servetlerini emanet ettikleri yerler olmu\u015flar hem de yap\u0131lan \u00f6nemli miktardaki ba\u011f\u0131\u015f ve adaklarla b\u00fcy\u00fck servetlere sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Tap\u0131naklar ellerindeki bu parasal g\u00fcc\u00fc bankac\u0131l\u0131k yaparak de\u011ferlendirmi\u015fler, devletlere ve \u015fah\u0131slara faiz kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 bor\u00e7 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":361,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[109,20,222,29],"tags":[483,681],"class_list":["post-10304","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-72-sayi","category-arkeoloji","category-tarih","category-toplum","tag-iktisat","tag-tapinak"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t