{"id":16020,"date":"2016-03-01T15:32:31","date_gmt":"2016-03-01T13:32:31","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=16020"},"modified":"2018-01-05T16:02:50","modified_gmt":"2018-01-05T13:02:50","slug":"irk-kavraminin-sorgulanmasi-ve-yeni-fiziki-antropoloji-akimi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2016\/03\/01\/irk-kavraminin-sorgulanmasi-ve-yeni-fiziki-antropoloji-akimi","title":{"rendered":"Irk kavram\u0131n\u0131n sorgulanmas\u0131 ve Yeni Fiziki Antropoloji ak\u0131m\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca ve 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131na kadar fiziki antropolojinin temel ilgi alan\u0131 \u0131rklar\u0131n tan\u0131mlanmas\u0131 ve tasnifiydi. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde ise fiziki antropologlar t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu klinal \u00e7e\u015fitlilikleri ve adaptasyonlar\u0131 incelemekteler. Irk kavram\u0131 gerek fiziki antropologlar gerekse evrimsel genetik\u00e7iler tara\u011f\u0131ndan terk edilmi\u015ftir. <\/em><\/p>\n

Sunu\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n

Okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z makale Bar\u0131\u015f \u00d6zener\u2019in Evrensel Bas\u0131m Yay\u0131n\u2019dan \u00e7\u0131kan \u0130nsan \u00c7e\u015fitlili\u011fi<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131ndan al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu k\u0131sa ama \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, \u00d6zener ile yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z s\u00f6yle\u015fiyi tamamlay\u0131c\u0131 niteli\u011fi dolay\u0131s\u0131yla okurlar\u0131m\u0131za sunmak istedik.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131na kadar Amerika merkezli kal\u0131tsalc\u0131 zek\u00e2 kuram\u0131 \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan psikologlar, \u0131rklar\u0131n zek\u00e2 farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koyma tela\u015f\u0131ndayken, fiziki antropologlar kan gruplar\u0131 ve morfometrik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmler kullanarak \u0131rk tasnifleri yapmaya devam ediyordu. Ancak az say\u0131da biyolog ve antropolog, insanlar\u0131 \u0131rklara ay\u0131rman\u0131n \u00fcretken bir \u00e7aba olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve insan \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klamak ad\u0131na art\u0131k i\u015flevini yitirdi\u011fini savunmaya ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

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Evrimsel biyolog Julian Huxley (1887-1975), insan\u0131 zoolojik bir t\u00fcr gibi alt t\u00fcrlere ay\u0131rarak incelemenin anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgulad\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Yeni Darwinizm\u2019in \u00f6nde gelen savunucular\u0131ndan, evrimsel biyolog Julian Huxley, 1939\u2019da kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da Irk<\/em> adl\u0131 eserinde, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan kalma Aryan Irk\u0131 mitolojisiyle adeta dalga ge\u00e7erek, insan\u0131 zoolojik bir t\u00fcr gibi alt t\u00fcrlere ay\u0131rarak incelemenin anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgulad\u0131 (Huxley, 1939).<\/p>\n

Huxley\u2019in izinden giden Ashley Montagu, insan toplumlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131flara ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan \u0131rk kavram\u0131na ilk kez y\u00fcksek sesle kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kan antropolog oldu. Montagu, 1945\u2019de kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cAntropolojide Etnik Grup Teriminin Kullan\u0131m\u0131\u201d adl\u0131 makalesinde \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131n karma\u015f\u0131k insan \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klamakta yetersiz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 iddia ederek, \u0131rk yerine etnik grup teriminin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nerdi. Montagu etnik grubu; co\u011frafi ve sosyal engeller gibi ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 mekanizmalar nedeniyle fiziki ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel farkl\u0131l\u0131klar ta\u015f\u0131yan topluluk olarak tan\u0131mlad\u0131. Bu tarihten itibaren \u00e7ok fazla biyolojik anlam i\u00e7ermeyen etnik grup terimi antropologlar\u0131n \u0131rk kavram\u0131 yerine yayg\u0131n olarak kullanaca\u011f\u0131 kavram olacakt\u0131 (Montagu, 1945).<\/p>\n

Montagu, insan gruplar\u0131 aras\u0131nda var olan biyolojik farkl\u0131klar\u0131 reddetmedi; ancak g\u00f6zlenen \u00e7e\u015fitlilik d\u00e2hilinde keskin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgulad\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, deri rengi \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi arada bo\u015fluk olmaks\u0131z\u0131n o kadar devaml\u0131d\u0131r ki, bu devaml\u0131l\u0131k pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131 ay\u0131rmay\u0131 imk\u00e2ns\u0131z hale getirir. Antropologlar g\u00f6\u00e7, mutasyon, se\u00e7ilim, izolasyon ve genetik s\u00fcr\u00fcklenme gibi kavramlar\u0131 kullanarak dinamik bir \u201cgenetik \u0131rk\u201d kuram\u0131 geli\u015ftirmek zorundayd\u0131. American Anthropologist<\/em> dergisinde 1942\u2019de yay\u0131mlanan makalesinde Montagu, \u0131rklar\u0131 belirli bir co\u011frafi b\u00f6lge kapsam\u0131nda bir pop\u00fclasyonda meydana gelen genetik de\u011fi\u015fim s\u00fcrecinin bir sonucu olarak tan\u0131mlad\u0131. Bu tan\u0131mdan da anla\u015f\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 gibi \u0131rk, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n tipolojik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n aksine statik de\u011fil dinamik bir kavramd\u0131 (Montagu, 1942). \u0130nsan \u00e7e\u015fitli\u011fi \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan antropologlar\u0131n amac\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmak de\u011fil, \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi meydana getiren evrimsel etmenleri ara\u015ft\u0131rmak olmal\u0131d\u0131r diye ekleyen Montagu, fiziki antropolojide 1950\u2019lerle beraber ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacak d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn ilk habercisi oldu.<\/p>\n

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Ashley Montagu (1905-1999), insan toplumlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131flara ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan \u0131rk kavram\u0131na ilk kez y\u00fcksek sesle kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kan antropolog oldu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Amerika\u2019daki g\u00f6\u00e7menler ve \u0131rklar aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiler \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fcten sosyolog Henry Fairchild \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131n anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fczerinde Montagu ile ayn\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri payla\u015fan bir di\u011fer bilimciydi. Fairchild 1944 y\u0131l\u0131nda Harper\u2019s Magazine <\/em>adl\u0131 dergide \u0131rk farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemsiz oldu\u011funu iddia ederken, iddias\u0131n\u0131 kan\u0131tlamaya y\u00f6nelik yedi arg\u00fcman s\u0131ralad\u0131. Fairchild\u2019\u0131n a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da s\u0131ralanan arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131n\u0131n insan\u0131n k\u00f6keni ve \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi \u00fczerindeki d\u00f6nemin tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na \u0131\u015f\u0131k tuttu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz (aktaran Mielke ve ark., 2010).<\/p>\n

1) T\u00fcm insanlar ayn\u0131 k\u00f6kenden gelmektedir.<\/p>\n

2) T\u00fcm \u0131rklara mensup insanlar farkl\u0131 olu\u015flar\u0131ndan ziyade, benzerdirler.<\/p>\n

3) Pop\u00fclasyona dahil u\u00e7 \u00f6rnekler aras\u0131ndaki farkl\u0131l\u0131k, farkl\u0131 \u0131rklar\u0131n ortalamalar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki farkl\u0131l\u0131ktan daha y\u00fcksektir.<\/p>\n

4) Farkl\u0131 \u0131rklar\u0131n u\u00e7 \u00f6zellikleri \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015febildi\u011finden dolay\u0131, belirli bir \u0131rk\u0131n bireylerinin sahip oldu\u011fu bir tak\u0131m \u00f6zel nitelikler, bir di\u011fer \u0131rk\u0131n karakteristi\u011fi olmas\u0131 beklenen \u00f6zelliklerden daha geli\u015fmi\u015f ve g\u00f6zle g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr halde olabilir.<\/p>\n

5) G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde saf \u0131rk yoktur.<\/p>\n

6) T\u00fcm \u0131rklardan insanlar birbirleriyle \u00e7iftle\u015fip \u00e7o\u011falabilirler ve bu yolla olu\u015fan melezle\u015fmenin herhangi bir zarar\u0131 yoktur.<\/p>\n

7) Zek\u00e2 testleri bir milletin zek\u00e2 ve becerilerini yans\u0131tmaz. Zek\u00e2 ve beceri e\u011fitim ve di\u011fer \u00e7evresel etmenler ile \u015fekillenir.<\/p>\n

Bir taraftan antropologlar aras\u0131nda \u0131rk tasniflerine ili\u015fkin s\u00fcren tart\u0131\u015fmalar devam ederken, Ukrayna k\u00f6kenli \u00fcnl\u00fc genetik\u00e7i Theodosius Dobzhansky 1944\u2019de \u0131rk\u0131n genetik olarak tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 yapan ilk bilimci oldu. Dobzhansky, \u0131rklar\u0131, baz\u0131 gen ya da genlerin frekanslar\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnden farkl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6steren pop\u00fclasyonlar olarak tan\u0131ml\u0131yor, kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ge\u00e7i\u015f potansiyeli olan genlerin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n \u0131rklar\u0131 ay\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgulamay\u0131 da ihmal etmiyordu. Bu tan\u0131ma g\u00f6re \u0131rklar aktif birimlerdi ve de\u011fi\u015fmeye m\u00fcsaitti. Dobzhansky, ba\u015fta Ashley Montagu olmak \u00fczere bir dizi antropolo\u011fun \u0131rksal s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerine kat\u0131lm\u0131yordu. Ona g\u00f6re insanlar\u0131n mevcut \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmak, hayvanlardaki \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi alt t\u00fcrler kapsam\u0131nda s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmak kadar do\u011fald\u0131 (Dobzhansky, 1963).<\/p>\n

Irklar ve evrim konusunda s\u00fcren tart\u0131\u015fmalar, 1950 y\u0131l\u0131nda Cold Spring Harbor laboratuvarlar\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen \u201c\u0130nsan\u0131n Evrimi ve K\u00f6keni\u201d isimli, bir\u00e7ok \u00fcnl\u00fc antropolo\u011fun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, Dobzhansky, Haldane, Mayr gibi \u00fcnl\u00fc evrimsel biyologlar\u0131n da kat\u0131l\u0131m\u0131yla ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen toplant\u0131yla yeni bir boyut kazand\u0131. Bu sempozyumdaki ana tart\u0131\u015fma konusu, Darwin\u2019in evrim kuram\u0131n\u0131n Mendel geneti\u011fi ile birle\u015ftirilmesi sonucunda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan sentetik teorinin insan evrimine uyarlanmas\u0131yd\u0131. Toplant\u0131 sonunda, insan evrimi kapsam\u0131nda tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f \u00e7ok say\u0131da cins ve t\u00fcr\u00fcn \u201cHomo<\/em>\u201d olarak isimlendirilen tek bir cins alt\u0131nda toplanmas\u0131na karar verildi. Di\u011fer taraftan paleoantropologlar\u0131n basit morfometrik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlere dayal\u0131 t\u00fcr tan\u0131mlama y\u00f6ntemleri (morfot\u00fcr) taksonomistler taraf\u0131ndan etrafl\u0131ca ele\u015ftirildi. Sempozyumun sonu\u00e7 bildirgesinde, modern evrimsel sentezin, biyolojik t\u00fcr kavram\u0131n\u0131n ve taksonomik isimlendirme kurallar\u0131n\u0131n fiziki antropolojide kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnde ortak bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f birli\u011fi olu\u015ftu. Bu toplant\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan fiziki antropolojide modern sentezin etkileri a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fclmeye ba\u015fland\u0131.<\/p>\n

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ABD\u2019li sosyolog Henry Fairchild (1880-1956) \u0131rk farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemsiz oldu\u011funu iddia ederken, iddias\u0131n\u0131 kan\u0131tlamaya y\u00f6nelik yedi arg\u00fcman s\u0131ralam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1951 y\u0131l\u0131nda Sherwood Washburn\u2019un \u201cYeni Fiziki Antropoloji\u201d isimli makalesi, s\u00f6z konusu de\u011fi\u015fimin en \u00f6nemli mihenk ta\u015f\u0131 oldu. Washburn makalesinde fiziki antropologlar\u0131n bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 ve yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirmelerinin vaktinin geldi\u011fini vurgulayarak, yeni sentez \u00f6ncesi ve sonras\u0131nda fiziki antropolojinin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma prensiplerini basit bi\u00e7imde aktard\u0131. Eski yakla\u015f\u0131m farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n basit tan\u0131m\u0131na ve \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin hiyerar\u015fik bi\u00e7imde tasnifine dayal\u0131yd\u0131. Adaptif olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131na inan\u0131lan \u00e7ok say\u0131da v\u00fccut \u00f6zelli\u011fi \u0131rklar\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Washburn\u2019a g\u00f6re yeni fiziki antropoloji evrimsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin mekanizmalar\u0131 \u00fczerinde odaklanmal\u0131 ve dinamik bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 benimsemeliydi. S\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma arka planda kalmal\u0131, s\u00fcre\u00e7ler ve buna ba\u011fl\u0131 varyasyonlar\u0131n nedenleri ve sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131kmal\u0131yd\u0131. Ayn\u0131 zamanda yeni fiziki antropolojik yakla\u015f\u0131m hipotezlerin olu\u015fturulmas\u0131nda bilimsel kan\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00f6nemi \u00fczerinde yo\u011funla\u015fmal\u0131yd\u0131 (aktaran, Fuentes, 2010).<\/p>\n

Yeni yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n bilimadamlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda kabul g\u00f6rmesi i\u00e7in zamana ihtiya\u00e7 vard\u0131. Sadece antropologlar de\u011fil, \u00fcnl\u00fc taksonomistler (\u00f6rn. Ernst Mayr) ve genetik\u00e7ilerin (\u00f6rn. Theodosius Dobzhansky) b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131 insan\u0131n politipik bir t\u00fcr oldu\u011funa ve alt gruplar\u0131n\u0131n \u0131rklara ayr\u0131larak s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fine inan\u0131yordu. 1955 y\u0131l\u0131nda bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n devam\u0131 olarak Stanley Garn ve Charlton Coon yeni bir s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma y\u00f6ntemi \u00f6nerdiler. \u0130ki antropolog \u0131rklar\u0131, co\u011frafi \u0131rklar, yerel \u0131rklar ve mikro \u0131rklar olarak \u00fc\u00e7 grupta toplad\u0131. Co\u011frafi \u0131rklar ana k\u0131talarda ve b\u00fcy\u00fck adalarda ya\u015fayan pop\u00fclasyonlara kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k geliyordu. Buna g\u00f6re alt\u0131 ya da yedi co\u011frafi \u0131rk\u0131n var oldu\u011funu iddia ettiler. Mikro \u0131rklar kendi aralar\u0131nda \u00fcreyip \u00e7o\u011falan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck gruplarken, yerel \u0131rklar k\u0131tasal \u0131rklar d\u00e2hilindeki alt gruplard\u0131 (Garn ve Coon, 1955). Coon 1962\u2019de yay\u0131nlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Irklar\u0131n K\u00f6keni <\/em>(The Origin of Races) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda Kafkazoid, Mongoloid, Avustraloid, Kongoid ve Kapoid olmak \u00fczere co\u011frafi \u0131rklar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 be\u015fe indirdi. Kitab\u0131nda, Orta Pleistosen d\u00f6neme ait fosil kay\u0131tlarda bu be\u015f \u0131rk\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin kan\u0131tlar\u0131n bulundu\u011funu iddia ediyordu. Bu be\u015f \u0131rk\u0131n atas\u0131 Homo erectus<\/em>\u2019tu ve bu t\u00fcr be\u015f farkl\u0131 evrimsel dala ayr\u0131larak farkl\u0131 d\u00f6nemlerde Homo sapiens<\/em>\u2019lere evrimle\u015fmi\u015fti. Be\u015f \u0131rk\u0131n Homo sapiens<\/em> olmas\u0131 Coon\u2019a g\u00f6re e\u015f zamanl\u0131 olmad\u0131; en \u00f6nce sapiens olan \u0131rk Kafkazoidler, yani Beyazlard\u0131. Kongoid ve Kapoidler ise en son sapiens\u2019e evrimle\u015fen gruptu (Coon, 1962). Dobzhansky de insan \u0131rklar\u0131n\u0131n Homo erectus<\/em>\u2019lardan birbirinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bi\u00e7imde 5 farkl\u0131 koldan evrimle\u015fti\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu (Dobzhansky, 1963). Coon\u2019un bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 ba\u015fta Ashley Montagu olmak \u00fczere baz\u0131 antropologlar taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcksek sesle ele\u015ftirildi. Bu itirazlar antropolojik ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0131rk s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmalar\u0131ndan, insan\u0131n biyolojik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011finin ve adaptasyonunun ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na do\u011fru d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesinde \u00f6nemli bir unsur oldu (Marks, 1995).<\/p>\n

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Amerikal\u0131 antropolog Frank Livingstone (1928-2005) 1962\u2019de \u201c\u0130nsan Irklar\u0131n\u0131n Var Olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00dczerine\u201d adl\u0131 makalesinde \u0131rk kavram\u0131na alternatif olarak klin kavram\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nerdi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde antropolojinin \u0131rk kavram\u0131na yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortas\u0131na gelindi\u011finde antropologlar pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131n sabit kalmay\u0131p de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fini ve \u00e7ok say\u0131da etmenin bu de\u011fi\u015fime neden oldu\u011funu biliyordu. Ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n\u0131 Afrika toplumlar\u0131nda s\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fclen orak h\u00fccreli anemi \u00fczerinde s\u00fcrd\u00fcren Amerikal\u0131 antropolog Frank Livingstone 1962\u2019de \u201c\u0130nsan Irklar\u0131n\u0131n Var Olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00dczerine\u201d ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan bir makale kaleme ald\u0131. Livingstone, Darwinci do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle \u015fekillenen dinamik pop\u00fclasyon anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan kalma dura\u011fan ve tipolojik \u0131rk anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n yerini almas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini savundu. Ya\u015fayan pop\u00fclasyonlar aras\u0131nda tabi ki farkl\u0131l\u0131klar vard\u0131, ancak bu farkl\u0131l\u0131klar \u201c\u0131rklar\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck paketlere s\u0131\u011fd\u0131r\u0131lamazd\u0131. Makalesinde \u0131rk kavram\u0131na alternatif olarak klin kavram\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nerdi. Klin, belirli bir co\u011frafi hat boyunca kademeli olarak de\u011fi\u015fen biyolojik de\u011fi\u015fkenlerden her biriydi. Livingstone, k\u0131saca \u0131rk\u0131n var olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, klinal \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin var oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yl\u00fcyordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, deri rengi klinal bir \u00f6zelliktir. Ekvator ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131ndan kuzey enlemlerine do\u011fru gidildik\u00e7e deri renginde kademeli bir a\u00e7\u0131lma s\u00f6z konusudur; bu de\u011fi\u015fim yava\u015f ve bo\u015fluksuzdur, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla renk ge\u00e7i\u015fleri belirsizdir (Larsen, 2010). Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m insan \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na yeni bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 kazand\u0131rd\u0131 ve pop\u00fclasyonlar bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak de\u011fil, klinal \u00f6zellikler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan incelenmeye ba\u015fland\u0131. B\u00f6ylelikle 1970\u2019lerden sonra \u0131rk kavram\u0131 fiziki antropolojide g\u00f6zden d\u00fc\u015fen bir kavram haline geldi.<\/p>\n

Mielke ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2010) antropolojide \u201c\u0131rk\u201d anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n neden terk edildi\u011fine ili\u015fkin sebepleri birka\u00e7 madde halinde s\u0131ralam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Say\u0131lan gerek\u00e7eler \u0131rk tasniflerinin neden anlams\u0131z bir u\u011fra\u015f oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6zler \u00f6n\u00fcne sermektedir.<\/p>\n

    \n
  • \u0130nsan gruplar\u0131 morfolojik y\u00f6nden homojen de\u011fildir.<\/li>\n
  • \u00c7ok say\u0131da poligenik \u00f6zelli\u011fin do\u011fru bir \u015fekilde \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm\u00fc zordur.<\/li>\n
  • S\u0131n\u0131flamada kullan\u0131lan \u00f6zellikler aras\u0131na keskin s\u0131n\u0131rlar \u00e7izmek zordur, hatta imk\u00e2ns\u0131zd\u0131r.<\/li>\n
  • S\u0131n\u0131flamalarda kullan\u0131lan \u00f6zelliklerin evrimsel de\u011fi\u015fim h\u0131zlar\u0131 farkl\u0131 olabilir.<\/li>\n
  • Kullan\u0131lan \u00f6zellikler \u00e7o\u011fu zaman birbirleriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 de\u011fildir<\/li>\n
  • S\u0131n\u0131flamada ka\u00e7 \u00f6zelli\u011fin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fi belirsizdir<\/li>\n
  • Gruplar aras\u0131nda var oldu\u011fu iddia edilen farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n genetik temelleri bilinmemektedir<\/li>\n
  • Herkes bir kategoriye yerle\u015ftirilemez. Bireyler \u00e7o\u011fu zaman hi\u00e7bir kategoriye uymaz.<\/li>\n
  • Grup i\u00e7inde yer alan genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131k, ana co\u011frafi gruplar aras\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen farkl\u0131l\u0131ktan daha fazlad\u0131r.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

    Michigan \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nden Leonard Lieberman ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en prestijli fiziki antropoloji dergilerinden birisi olan American Journal of Physical Anthropology<\/em>\u2019de 1918-2002 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yay\u0131mlanan \u0131rk odakl\u0131 makalelerin say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 incelemi\u015ftir. Bu incelemeye g\u00f6re, 1918-1943 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda % 61, 1945-1973 aras\u0131nda % 42, 1975-2001 aras\u0131nda ise yay\u0131mlanan makalelerin % 21\u2019inde \u0131rk kavram\u0131 klasik anlam\u0131yla kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 2001\u2019de ise bu oran sadece % 4\u2019t\u00fcr. S\u00f6z konusu tarih aral\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131n kademeli bi\u00e7imde antropoloji literat\u00fcr\u00fcnden nas\u0131l silindi\u011fini \u015eekil\u2019e bakarak da g\u00f6rebiliriz. Di\u011fer taraftan, Lieberman ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n aktard\u0131\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, 1969 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar antropolojiye giri\u015f niteli\u011finde yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f yirmi ba\u015fvuru kitab\u0131ndan sadece \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnde kitab\u0131n yazar\u0131 \u0131rk kavram\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu \u00fc\u00e7 kitab\u0131n da yazar\u0131 Ashley Montagu\u2019dur. 1970\u2019lerde ise yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f on kitaptan be\u015finde \u0131rk kavram\u0131 sorgulan\u0131rken, 1990\u2019lara gelindi\u011finde on kitab\u0131n sadece birinde \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kabul g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr (Lieberman ve ark., 2002).<\/p>\n

    \u015eekil. Fiziki antropolojinin en prestijli dergilerinden olan American Journal of Physical Anthropology<\/em>\u2019de 1918-2001 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yay\u0131mlanan \u0131rk odakl\u0131 makale say\u0131s\u0131ndaki belirgin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f (Lieberman ve ark., 2002).<\/p>\n

    \"\"
    \u00dcnl\u00fc genetik\u00e7i Richard Lewontin insan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0131rklar ba\u011flam\u0131nda tasnifinin anlams\u0131z oldu\u011funu genetik a\u00e7\u0131dan da g\u00f6sterdi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    Evrimsel genetik\u00e7iler de \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131 terk etti<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u0130nsan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0131rklar ba\u011flam\u0131nda tasnifinin anlams\u0131z oldu\u011fu ger\u00e7e\u011fi sadece antropologlar de\u011fil, baz\u0131 evrimsel genetik\u00e7iler taraf\u0131ndan da dile getirilmi\u015ftir. \u00dcnl\u00fc genetik\u00e7i Richard Lewontin 1972\u2019de kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201c\u0130nsan \u00c7e\u015fitlili\u011finin Bile\u015fenlerine Ayr\u0131lmas\u0131\u201d isimli makalesinde, Avrupal\u0131, Afrikal\u0131, Uzak Do\u011fulu, G\u00fcney Asyal\u0131, K\u0131z\u0131lderili, Okyanusyal\u0131 ve Avustralyal\u0131 bireylerden olu\u015fan geni\u015f bir pop\u00fclasyon \u00fczerinde 16 genetik \u00f6zelli\u011fe ait protein polimorfizmlerini incelemi\u015ftir. Ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan ilgin\u00e7 sonu\u00e7lara g\u00f6re, 16 genetik \u00f6zellik a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan yedi \u201c\u0131rk\u201d grubu aras\u0131ndaki varyasyon oran\u0131 sadece % 6,3 iken, her bir pop\u00fclasyonun kendi i\u00e7inde sergiledi\u011fi varyasyon % 85,4\u2019t\u00fcr. Bu oranlar memeli t\u00fcrlerinde olduk\u00e7a farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Afrika\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fu ve g\u00fcney b\u00f6lgelerinde ya\u015fayan Afrika fillerinde gruplar aras\u0131 varyasyon % 40 iken, Kuzey Amerika\u2019da ya\u015fayan gri kurtlarda % 75\u2019dir. Biyo\u00e7e\u015fitlilik \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan biyologlar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131 bir t\u00fcr\u00fcn \u0131rklara ya da alt t\u00fcrlere ayr\u0131labilmesi i\u00e7in gruplar aras\u0131 genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n en az % 25-30 olmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini kabul ederler. T\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz i\u00e7in elde edilen gruplar aras\u0131 varyasyon oran\u0131, incelenen ana pop\u00fclasyonlar aras\u0131nda g\u00f6zlenen genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin insan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc \u0131rklara ay\u0131rmaya yetecek d\u00fczeyde olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmektedir. Genler bize, t\u00fcr i\u00e7i \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fimizin b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n pop\u00fclasyonlar aras\u0131nda de\u011fil pop\u00fclasyonlar i\u00e7inde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemektedir (Lewontin, 1972).<\/p>\n

    \"\"
    Fiziki antropolojinin en prestijli dergilerinden olan American Journal of Physical Anthropology\u2019de, 1918-2001 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yay\u0131mlanan \u0131rk odakl\u0131 makale say\u0131s\u0131ndaki belirgin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f (Lieberman ve ark., 2002).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

    19. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca ve 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131na kadar fiziki antropolojinin temel ilgi alan\u0131 \u0131rklar\u0131n tan\u0131mlanmas\u0131 ve tasnifiydi. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde ise fiziki antropologlar t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu klinal \u00e7e\u015fitlilikleri ve adaptasyonlar\u0131 incelemekteler. Ancak bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcme ra\u011fmen T\u00fcrkiye\u2019de bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f antropolojik eserlerde ne yaz\u0131k ki arka planda varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcren gizli bir \u0131rk anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na tan\u0131k oluyoruz. Baz\u0131 yazarlar kitaplar\u0131nda \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 arg\u00fcmanlar sunsalar da, bu s\u00f6zde \u0131rklar\u0131 birbirinden ay\u0131ran fiziksel \u00f6zellikleri ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imde ele alman\u0131n, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k yapmadan \u0131rklar\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rman\u0131n do\u011fru bir yol oldu\u011fu konusunda h\u00e2l\u00e2 \u0131srarc\u0131lar. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde insan \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi \u00fczerine yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f hi\u00e7bir kitapta ge\u00e7mi\u015fte yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u0131rksal s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma \u00f6rnekleri kullan\u0131lmazken, \u00fclkemizde antropologlar\u0131n bu \u00f6rnekleri h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131yor olmas\u0131 antropoloji ad\u0131na \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r. Di\u011fer taraftan, \u0131rk steryotipine sadece bu alanda yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f kitaplarda de\u011fil, akademik makalelerde de rastlamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. \u00dclkemizdeki \u00fcniversitelerinde g\u00f6rev yapan antropologlar Anadolu\u2019dan ele ge\u00e7en iskelet buluntular\u0131 \u00fczerindeki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda, kafatas\u0131 indeksi gibi 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan kalma tipolojik y\u00f6ntemleri kullanarak ge\u00e7mi\u015fte ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f topluluklar\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 \u0131rksal k\u00f6kenlerini belirlemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Bu \u00f6rnekler, ne yaz\u0131k ki T\u00fcrkiye antropolojisinin g\u00fcncel tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n olduk\u00e7a gerisinde oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n

    Kaynaklar<\/strong><\/p>\n

    – Coon CS. (1962) The Origin of Races<\/em>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.<\/p>\n

    – Dobzhansky T (1963) Possibility that Homo sapiens evolved independently 5 times is vishingly small. Current Anthropology<\/em>, 4:360, 364-367.<\/p>\n

    – Fuentes A. (2010) The New Biological Anthropology: Bringing Washburn\u2019s New Physical Anthropology Into 2010 and Beyond\u2014The 2008 AAPA Luncheon Lecture. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology<\/em>, 53:2\u201312.<\/p>\n

    – Garn SM, Coon CS (1955) On the number of races of mankind. American Anthropologist <\/em>57:996-1001.<\/p>\n

    – Huxley J. (1939) “Race” in Europe. Oxford: Calerendon Press.<\/p>\n

    – Larsen, CS. (2010) Essentials of Physical Anthropology: Discovering Our Origins<\/em>. W. W. Norton & Company: New York.<\/p>\n

    – Levontin R. (1972) The Apportionment of Human Diversity. Evolutionary Biology<\/em>,6:381\u2013398.<\/p>\n

    – Lieberman L, Kirk RC, Corcoran M. (2002). The decline of race in American physical anthropology. Anthropological Review<\/em>, 66:3-21.<\/p>\n

    – Marks J. (1995) Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History<\/em>. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.<\/p>\n

    – Mielke, James H., Lyle W. Konigsberg and John H. Relethford. (2010) Human Biological Variation<\/em>, Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n

    – Montagu A (1942) The genetical theory of race, and anthropological method. American Anthropologist<\/em>, 44:369-375.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    19. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca ve 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131na kadar fiziki antropolojinin temel ilgi alan\u0131 \u0131rklar\u0131n tan\u0131mlanmas\u0131 ve tasnifiydi. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde ise fiziki antropologlar t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu klinal \u00e7e\u015fitlilikleri ve adaptasyonlar\u0131 incelemekteler. Irk kavram\u0131 gerek fiziki antropologlar gerekse evrimsel genetik\u00e7iler tara\u011f\u0131ndan terk edilmi\u015ftir. Sunu\u015f Okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z makale Bar\u0131\u015f \u00d6zener\u2019in Evrensel Bas\u0131m Yay\u0131n\u2019dan \u00e7\u0131kan \u0130nsan \u00c7e\u015fitlili\u011fi adl\u0131 kitab\u0131ndan al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":676,"featured_media":16021,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[182,211,1464,32],"tags":[243,1746,1880,1879,292,1881,1877],"class_list":["post-16020","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-145-sayi","category-antropoloji","category-dosya","category-evrim","tag-antropoloji","tag-cesitlilik","tag-darwinizm","tag-fiziki-antropoloji","tag-genetik","tag-insanin-kokeni","tag-irk"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t