{"id":16262,"date":"2016-02-01T13:41:59","date_gmt":"2016-02-01T11:41:59","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=16262"},"modified":"2018-01-09T16:18:38","modified_gmt":"2018-01-09T13:18:38","slug":"araclarin-oykusu","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2016\/02\/01\/araclarin-oykusu","title":{"rendered":"Ara\u00e7lar\u0131n \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fc"},"content":{"rendered":"

Kullanmakta oldu\u011fumuz ara\u00e7lar tahta, ta\u015f, kemik, tun\u00e7 (bronz) ya da demir gibi \u00e7ok daha yal\u0131n objelerin yap\u0131m\u0131nda zamanla sa\u011flanan geli\u015fmelerin \u00fcst \u00fcste binip birikmesinin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. S\u00f6z konusu ara\u00e7lar \u00fczerlerinde, ilk yap\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 uzak k\u00f6kenlerinin ve ilk yap\u0131l\u0131p kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131nda bizimkilerden \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 toplumsal ve ekonomik \u00f6rg\u00fctleni\u015flerinin izlerini ta\u015f\u0131rlar. Ara\u00e7lar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131ndan, izlenebildikleri kadar uzak ge\u00e7mi\u015flerinden g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ge\u00e7en uzun zaman s\u00fcresinde insanlar, yaln\u0131zca ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fil, ge\u00e7imlerinin (ekonomilerinin) bi\u00e7imini de de\u011fi\u015ftirdiler. Bunun bir sonucu olarak toplumun i\u015fbirli\u011fi yolunda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme bi\u00e7imi de de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/em><\/p>\n

Sunu\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n

Okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z makale, Gordon Childe\u2019\u0131n, The Story of Tools<\/em> ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla, Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131k (\u0130ngiltere) Gen\u00e7 Kom\u00fcnistler Birli\u011fi\u2019nin, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n geli\u015fmesi ve insan toplumunun kazan\u0131mlar\u0131 hakk\u0131nda daha derin bir anlay\u0131\u015fa ula\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in giri\u015filen \u201cBilimin \u00d6yk\u00fcs\u00fc\u201d etkinli\u011fine bir katk\u0131 olarak verdi\u011fi, 1944\u2019te Cobbett Publishing Co. Ltd. (Londra) yay\u0131nlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde bas\u0131lan yaz\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n, Al\u00e2eddin \u015eenel (2015) \u00e7evirisidir. Araba\u015fl\u0131klar Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em> taraf\u0131ndan konuldu.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Bug\u00fcn sizin ve benim kullanmakta oldu\u011fumuz ara\u00e7lar tahta, ta\u015f, kemik, tun\u00e7 (bronz) ya da demir gibi \u00e7ok daha yal\u0131n (basit) objelerin yap\u0131m\u0131nda zamanla sa\u011flanan geli\u015fmelerin \u00fcst \u00fcste binip birikmesinin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Baz\u0131 \u00f6rneklerinde, y\u00fczlerce y\u0131l \u00f6nce kaba anatalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n (analar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n ve atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n) yani bizim gelece\u011fimizin habercileri olan maymun benzeri varl\u0131klarca yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. S\u00f6z konusu ara\u00e7lar \u00fczerlerinde, ilk yap\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 uzak k\u00f6kenlerinin ve ilk yap\u0131l\u0131p kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131nda bizimkilerden \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 toplumsal ve ekonomik \u00f6rg\u00fctleni\u015flerinin izlerini ta\u015f\u0131maktad\u0131rlar. Ara\u00e7lar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131ndan, izlenebildikleri kadar uzak ge\u00e7mi\u015flerinden g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ge\u00e7en uzun zaman s\u00fcresinde insanlar, yaln\u0131zca ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fil, ge\u00e7imlerinin (ekonomilerinin) bi\u00e7imini de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. Bunun bir sonucu olarak toplumun i\u015fbirli\u011fi [kolektif eylem](1)<\/sup> yolunda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme bi\u00e7imi de de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsanl\u0131k tarihinin % 90\u2019\u0131n\u0131 kapsayan d\u00f6nemi boyunca t\u00fcm toplumlar yiyeceklerini yaln\u0131zca toplay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k, avc\u0131l\u0131k ya da bal\u0131k\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k yoluyla sa\u011flad\u0131lar. Eolitik,(2)<\/sup> Paleolitik ve Mezolitik olarak bilinen arkeolojik \u201c\u00e7a\u011flar\u201d bu evreye denk d\u00fc\u015fmektedir. S\u00f6z konusu \u00e7a\u011flar, [haberli olsalard\u0131] Morgan\u2019\u0131n ve Engels\u2019in \u201cyaban\u0131llar\u201d(3)<\/sup> (vah\u015filer) diyecekleri g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn G\u00fcney Afrika\u2019n\u0131n Bu\u015fmanlar\u2019\u0131 ve Avustralya\u2019n\u0131n [\u00f6zg\u00fcn, yerli halk anlam\u0131na gelen bir s\u00f6zc\u00fckle] \u201cAborjinler\u201d denen yerlileri [k\u00fclt\u00fcrleri] ile temsil edilmektedir.<\/p>\n

Bunlar\u0131n her bir grubunun kendinden yararlan\u0131labilecek her bir \u00fcyesi, toplumun [toplulu\u011fun] ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmesi i\u00e7in en az\u0131ndan en gerekli \u015feylerin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 \u00e7abas\u0131na do\u011frudan ve etkin (aktif) olarak kat\u0131lmak zorundayd\u0131. Bunun sonucunda elde edilenlerden pay\u0131na d\u00fc\u015feni alma durumundayd\u0131. Ancak, 10 biny\u0131l \u00f6nceleri (insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n [\u00e7ok uzun] ge\u00e7mi\u015fiyle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131rsa g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze hi\u00e7 de uzak olmayan bir tarihte) baz\u0131 topluluklar yiyecek olarak, bu\u011fday\u0131 ve \u00f6teki yenebilir bitkileri ekip bi\u00e7meye ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra ya da bunsuz hayvan yeti\u015ftirmeye ba\u015flayarak, yiyecek kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 etkili bir bi\u00e7imde art\u0131rma yoluna girebildiler. S\u00f6z konusu edilen, arkeolojide \u201cNeolitik(4)<\/sup> \u00c7a\u011f\u201d denen ve bug\u00fcn \u201cA\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Barbarl\u0131k\u201d(5)<\/sup> \u00e7a\u011f\u0131 olarak nitelenen evredir. Bundan belki be\u015f biny\u0131l kadar sonra [ve zaman\u0131m\u0131zdan be\u015f biny\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce] bak\u0131r cevherini ergitme ve [kal\u0131plara] d\u00f6kme zanaatlar\u0131 bulundu. Ta\u015f yerine baz\u0131 tun\u00e7 ara\u00e7lar yap\u0131ld\u0131. Demir, ara\u00e7 yap\u0131m\u0131nda, bunu izleyen 3.000 y\u0131ldan fazla s\u00fcre boyunca kullan\u0131lmayacakt\u0131. \u0130nsanlar, ta ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7lar\u0131ndan beri, salt ya\u015fayabilmek i\u00e7in bile ara\u00e7 edinmek zorunda kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsanlar\u0131n, \u00f6teki hayvanlar\u0131n kollar\u0131, bacaklar\u0131, di\u015fleri ya da \u00f6teki bedensel organlar\u0131 ile yapabildikleri her t\u00fcrl\u00fc \u015feyi yapabilmeleri i\u00e7in, ara\u00e7lara gereksinimi vard\u0131r: \u00d6rne\u011fin [yenir yumrulu] k\u00f6kleri \u00e7\u0131karmada topra\u011f\u0131 kazabilmek; ya da so\u011fuktan korunabilmek; veya yiyecek olarak av hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131 yakalayabilmek i\u00e7in ara\u00e7lar gerekir. \u0130nsanlar, \u00f6n bacaklar\u0131 [kollara] ellere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc i\u00e7in; ayn\u0131 nesneyi iki g\u00f6zle [\u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu] g\u00f6rmenin sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 olanakla uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7ok do\u011fru saptayabildikleri i\u00e7in; ve \u00e7ok duyarl\u0131 bir sinir dizgesinin ve de ellerinin kollar\u0131n\u0131n e\u015fg\u00fcd\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc kesin bir do\u011frulukla sa\u011flayan karma\u015f\u0131k [yap\u0131l\u0131] beyinlerinin sayesinde ara\u00e7 yapabilmektedirler.<\/p>\n

Ancak insanlar, ne ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n nas\u0131l yap\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ne de onlar\u0131n nas\u0131l kullan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren do\u011fu\u015ftan herhangi bir [i\u00e7] g\u00fcd\u00fcye sahiptir. Bu, onlar\u0131n s\u00f6z konusu \u015feyleri deneyimle -s\u0131nama ve yan\u0131lma yoluyla- \u00f6\u011frenmek zorunda olduklar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Ne iyi ki [\u00e7ok \u015f\u00fck\u00fcr yerine] b\u00f6ylece bir ki\u015fi bu yollardan edindi\u011fi deneyimle bulduklar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6tekilerine bildirebilir. B\u00f6ylece onlar\u0131, sonuca g\u00f6t\u00fcrmeyecek bir\u00e7ok deneyime giri\u015fmekten kurtarabilir. Asl\u0131nda \u00e7o\u011fu kimse, ara\u00e7lar\u0131n nas\u0131l kullan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve sonra onlar\u0131n nas\u0131l yap\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, i\u00e7inde do\u011fmu\u015f bulundu\u011fu insan grubunun \u00f6teki \u00fcyelerinden -yani toplumdan- \u00f6\u011frenir. Herhangi bir ara\u00e7, toplumun \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. O arac\u0131n nas\u0131l yap\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ve nas\u0131l kullan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kurallar\u0131, bir toplumsal gelenekte korunup, s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcp ki\u015filere aktar\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u00d6te yandan, salt ara\u00e7lar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n bedenlerimizin bir par\u00e7as\u0131 olmamalar\u0131 ve kullan\u0131lmalar\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fclerimize ba\u011fl\u0131 olmamas\u0131 nedeniyle, onlar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fen ko\u015fullara uydurabiliriz. Ara\u00e7lar\u0131m\u0131z, de\u011fi\u015fen gereksinimlerimizi kar\u015f\u0131layabilmemizi sa\u011flayacak de\u011fi\u015fiklikler yapabilmemize a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. \u0130nsanlar\u0131n nas\u0131l olup da tropik b\u00f6lgelerde hipopotamlar, kutup b\u00f6lgelerinde beyaz ay\u0131lar yan\u0131nda ya\u015fayabildiklerinin yan\u0131t\u0131 buradad\u0131r. Yaln\u0131zca kal\u0131t\u0131mla edinilebilen \u201cara\u00e7lara\u201d [organlara] dayanan hi\u00e7bir hayvan, kendisini, b\u00f6ylesine geni\u015f bir iklim yelpazesine uyarlayamaz.<\/p>\n

Fosille\u015fmi\u015f kafataslar\u0131 Java\u2019da kaz\u0131l\u0131p ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan (Pithecanthropos<\/em> [Maymuninsan] olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan) t\u00fcr ile \u00c7in\u2019de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bulunan (Sinanthropos<\/em> ya da Pekin \u0130nsan\u0131 denen) bilinen en eski insanlar kadar, daha sonraki tarihlerde ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f (50 biny\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce Avrupa\u2019ya yay\u0131lm\u0131\u015f) Neanderthal \u0130nsan\u0131 gibi \u00f6rnekler, insan\u0131n daha sonra varolmu\u015f herhangi bir \u0131rk\u0131ndan(6)<\/sup> [cinsinden, t\u00fcr\u00fcnden] daha fazla maymun benzeri varl\u0131klard\u0131r. Ama onlar bile gereksinimlerini kar\u015f\u0131layabilmelerine yard\u0131mc\u0131 olacak \u201cbilin\u00e7li olarak bi\u00e7imlendirilmi\u015f ta\u015f par\u00e7alar\u0131\u201d anlam\u0131nda ara\u00e7lar yapm\u0131\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131. B\u00f6yle yarat\u0131klar [varl\u0131klar] beyni \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131lar ve onu geli\u015ftirdiler. Kuyruksuz maymunlar\u0131nki [\u0130ng. apes<\/em>] gibi kavgada ya da bir daldan meyve koparmada kullanabildikleri f\u0131rlak k\u00f6pekdi\u015fleri ta\u015f\u0131yan \u00e7ok iri bir \u00e7ene kemi\u011fi gibi bedensel \u00f6zelliklere sahip olmamalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n insanlar, ara\u00e7 kullanarak, ayn\u0131 \u015feyleri yapabildiler.<\/p>\n

\n
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Gordon Childe (1892-1957)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Gordon Childe kimdir? <\/strong><\/p>\n

Profes\u00f6r Gordon Childe, 1892\u2019de Avustralya\u2019da, Sidney \u015fehrinde do\u011fdu. Sidney ve Oxford \u00dcniversitelerini bitirdi. 1919-20 aras\u0131nda New South Wales Ba\u015fbakan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6zel sekreterli\u011fini yapt\u0131.<\/p>\n

1927\u2019de Edinburg \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde Tarih \u00d6ncesi Arkeoloji profes\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne atand\u0131. \u0130sko\u00e7ya ve Kuzey \u0130rlanda\u2019da en \u00f6nemlisi Orkney Adas\u0131ndaki Stara-Brae kaz\u0131s\u0131 olmak \u00fczere bir\u00e7ok kaz\u0131 y\u00f6netti. 1946-56 aras\u0131nda Londra \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde Tarih \u00d6ncesi Arkeoloji profes\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ve \u00fcniversitenin arkeoloji k\u00fcrs\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn y\u00f6neticili\u011fini yapt\u0131. 300. kurulu\u015f y\u0131ld\u00f6n\u00fcm\u00fcnde Harvard \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nce d\u00fczenlenen Sanat ve Bilimler Konferans\u0131\u2019na \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lan d\u00fcnyan\u0131n 60 se\u00e7kin biliminsan\u0131 aras\u0131nda arkeolojiyi temsil etmek \u00fczere G. Childe da bulunuyordu. Bu konferansta Onursal Edebiyat Doktorlu\u011fu ile, 1937\u2019de Pennsylvania \u00dcniversitesi taraf\u0131ndan Onursal Bilim Doktorlu\u011fu ile \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildi. 1939 yaz\u0131nda Kaliforniya \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde misafir profes\u00f6rd\u00fc. 1940\u2019da Britanya Akademisi\u2019ne se\u00e7ildi.\u00a0 Sidney \u00dcniversitesi de onu 1957\u2019de Onursal Edebiyat Doktorlu\u011fu ile \u00f6d\u00fcllendirdi. Gordon Childe ayn\u0131 y\u0131l, yani 1957\u2019de \u00f6ld\u00fc.<\/p>\n

G. Childe kendini salt arkeolojik veri ve bulgular\u0131n ortaya konulmas\u0131yla s\u0131n\u0131rlamay\u0131p, bu veri ve bulgulara kuramsal bir anlay\u0131\u015fla yakla\u015fmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f, bu yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131nda da Tarihsel Materyalist \u00f6\u011fretinin y\u00f6ntemine yak\u0131n bir y\u00f6ntem izlemi\u015ftir. Bu a\u00e7\u0131dan ortaya koydu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve bulgular toplumsal evrimin tarihsel materyalist \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleni\u015fi y\u00f6n\u00fcnden olduk\u00e7a yararl\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Gordon Childe\u2019in \u00f6zellikle Avrupa ve Yak\u0131n Do\u011fu prehistoryas\u0131na y\u00f6n veren en \u00f6nemli ki\u015filer aras\u0131nda say\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenebilir. \u00d6zellikle Neolitik Devrim ve \u015eehircilik devrim teorileri prehistorik arkeolojiye y\u00f6n vermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

En \u00f6nemli eserleri aras\u0131nda \u015funlar say\u0131labilir:<\/p>\n

– Avrupa Uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u015eafa\u011f\u0131<\/em> – The Dawn of European Civilization (1925)<\/p>\n

– Tarih \u00d6ncesinde Tuna<\/em> – The Danube in Prehistory (1929)<\/p>\n

– Bronz \u00c7a\u011f\u0131<\/em> – The Bronze Age (1930)<\/p>\n

– En Eski Do\u011fu<\/em> – New Light on the Most Ancient East (1935)<\/p>\n

– \u0130sko\u00e7ya\u2019n\u0131n Tarih \u00d6ncesi<\/em> – Prehistory of Scotland (1935)<\/p>\n

– \u0130nsan Kendini Yarat\u0131r<\/em> (Kendini Yaratan \u0130nsan<\/em>) – Man Makes Himself (1936, 1951)<\/p>\n

– Britanya Adalar\u0131\u2019ndaki Tarih \u00d6ncesi Topluluklar<\/em> – Prehistoric communities of the British Isles (1940 , 1947)<\/p>\n

– Tarihte Neler Oldu<\/em> – What Happened in History (1942)<\/p>\n

– Geli\u015fme ve Arkeoloji<\/em> – Progress and Archaeology (1944, 1945)<\/p>\n

– Tarih<\/em> – History (1947)<\/p>\n

– Toplumsal Evrim<\/em> – Social Evolution (1952)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n ilk \u00f6rne\u011fi: Elbaltas\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kalabilen en eski ara\u00e7lar ta\u015ftan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, eolitik (\u015fafakta\u015f) denecek ara\u00e7lard\u0131r. Sinanthropos<\/em>\u2019un gereksinimlerine destek olabilmesi i\u00e7in, bilin\u00e7li olarak toplay\u0131p ma\u011faras\u0131na ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 kuvars par\u00e7alar\u0131ndan yapay bi\u00e7imlendirilmi\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n bulunmas\u0131 yeterliydi. B\u00f6yle ara\u00e7lar bile, herhangi bir standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f (bir\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fctle\u015ftirilmi\u015f) bi\u00e7ime sahip olmamalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, bir\u00e7ok amaca yard\u0131mc\u0131 olabildiler. \u00d6yle ki insana, bir araca gereksinim duydu\u011fu her durumda, ele uygun bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n, o an\u0131n gereksinimine uyarlanabildi\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir. \u00d6yleyse onlara \u201canl\u0131k ara\u00e7lar\u201d (\u0130ng. occasional tools<\/em>) denebilir.<\/p>\n

\u201cA\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Paleolitik\u201d olarak terimle\u015ftirilen d\u00f6nem s\u0131ras\u0131nda, yumruk kadar bi\u00e7imsiz bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131na gereken bi\u00e7imin, \u00f6zellikle de kesici bir k\u0131y\u0131n\u0131n kazand\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda olduk\u00e7a etkili teknik s\u00fcre\u00e7ler bulundu. Bunlar, s\u00f6z konusu ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n, do\u011fal bir \u00f6rs i\u015flevi g\u00f6recek bi\u00e7imde \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131 olu\u015fturan bir kaya \u00fczerine konup, \u00f6nce eldeki bir ba\u015fka ta\u015fla, sonra bir dal par\u00e7as\u0131yla yap\u0131lan vuru\u015flarla [yontu\u015fla, r\u00f6tu\u015fla] bi\u00e7imlendirilmesi gibi, uzun bir s\u00fcre i\u00e7inde \u00e7ok a\u011f\u0131r giden geli\u015fmelerle sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015f y\u00f6ntemlerdi.<\/p>\n

Standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ara\u00e7lar<\/strong>\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fc: Bat\u0131 Avrupa, Afrika ve G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya \u00fclkelerinin alabildi\u011fine \u00e7ok yerinde, A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Paleolitik zamanlarda yap\u0131l\u0131vermi\u015f \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck say\u0131lara ula\u015fan \u00e7ok \u00e7e\u015fitli ara\u00e7lar toplulu\u011fu i\u00e7inde, \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7e\u015fitlemeleriyle ikide bir kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lan iki ya da \u00fc\u00e7 ara\u00e7 tipi g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpar. \u00d6yle ki yap\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f belli bi\u00e7imleri kopyalamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 apa\u00e7\u0131k anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Grubun ortak deneyimi (kolektif tecr\u00fcbesi) s\u00f6z konusu arac\u0131n tam da o bi\u00e7iminin, s\u0131k s\u0131k kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lan i\u015flerin yap\u0131lmas\u0131na uygun oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. B\u00f6ylece, do\u011fada bulunan bi\u00e7imsiz bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131na o bi\u00e7im verilene dek yontulmas\u0131n\u0131n her zaman ba\u015fvurulan bir y\u00f6ntemi yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f olur. Onunla birlikte, o arac\u0131n bi\u00e7imi ve yap\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n y\u00f6ntemi, toplumsal gelenekle standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Tek tek ki\u015filer, her keresinde, hangi bi\u00e7imin istedi\u011fi gibi olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve bu bi\u00e7ime nas\u0131l ula\u015f\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme sorunlar\u0131ndan kurtar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olurlar. Arkeologlar bu standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f en eski ara\u00e7lar i\u00e7in \u201celbaltalar\u0131\u201d (bak. \u00c7iz. 1)(7)<\/sup> terimini uygun g\u00f6rd\u00fcler. Ne var ki elbaltalar\u0131n\u0131n kesin olarak ne i\u00e7in kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kimse bilmemektedir. Kesme, kazma, y\u00fczme, d\u00fcrt\u00fcp saplama gibi ama\u00e7lara yaram\u0131\u015f olabilirler. Onlar\u0131n bu ama\u00e7lar\u0131n hepsi i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bulunmalar\u0131 \u00e7ok olas\u0131d\u0131r. Bir elbaltas\u0131, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc i\u015fte kullan\u0131labilen bir t\u00fcr \u00e7ok ama\u00e7l\u0131 (evrensel nitelikli) ara\u00e7, uzmanla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f bir gere\u00e7 idi.<\/p>\n

Avrupa\u2019da Neanderthal mamut avc\u0131lar\u0131nca temsil edilen orta paleolitik toplumlar [topluluklar](8)<\/sup> her biri olduk\u00e7a s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 say\u0131da i\u015fler i\u00e7in farkl\u0131 bi\u00e7im verilmi\u015f standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f birka\u00e7 ara\u00e7 yapmay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmi\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131. \u00d6zellikle, \u00fc\u00e7gen bi\u00e7imi olup t\u0131ra\u015flanm\u0131\u015f iki k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 bir sivri u\u00e7ta birle\u015fen \u201cu\u00e7lar\u201d denen (\u00c7iz. 2) \u201cyongata\u015flar\u201d(9)<\/sup> b\u0131\u00e7ak i\u015fleviyle kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Yaln\u0131zca d\u0131\u015fb\u00fckey [i\u015flenmi\u015f] tek k\u0131y\u0131ya sahip olan \u201cD\u201d bi\u00e7imli yongata\u015flarsa (\u00c7iz. 3) kesmeye, derilerin t\u00fcylerinin kaz\u0131nmas\u0131na ve benzeri ama\u00e7lara uygun ara\u00e7lar olsalar gerekti. Efimenko(10)<\/sup> ara\u00e7lardaki bu [\u00fc\u00e7gen bi\u00e7imli ve D bi\u00e7imli olarak] farkl\u0131la\u015fman\u0131n cinsler aras\u0131 [kad\u0131n – erkek aras\u0131] bir i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc yans\u0131t\u0131yor olabilece\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcndedir. \u015e\u00f6yle ki \u201cu\u00e7lar\u201d erkeklerin avlanmada kulland\u0131klar\u0131 b\u0131\u00e7aklarken, D bi\u00e7imli \u201ckaz\u0131y\u0131c\u0131lar\u201d kad\u0131nlarca yiyecek haz\u0131rlamada ve [deriden] giysi yapmada kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir (kar.(11)<\/sup> Engels, Origins<\/em>, 180, K\u00f6ken<\/em>, 186).(12)<\/sup> Buna kar\u015f\u0131n (Neanderthaller\u2019in g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn var olan herhangi bir \u0131rk\u0131ndan fazla maymun benzeri g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcmde olmalar\u0131na benzer bi\u00e7imde) orta paleolitik ara\u00e7lar bile, yak\u0131n ge\u00e7mi\u015fin en d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck k\u00fclt\u00fcr d\u00fczeyine sahip Tasmanyal\u0131 yaban\u0131l topluluklar\u0131n kulland\u0131klar\u0131ndan daha az \u00e7e\u015fitli ve teknik bak\u0131mdan daha kabayd\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

\"\"Kendileriyle ara\u00e7 yap\u0131lan ara\u00e7lar<\/strong><\/p>\n

En az\u0131ndan 250 biny\u0131l \u00f6nce ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f bulunan yukar\u0131 paleolitik evre ta\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131nda g\u00f6sterilen daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ileri g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fl\u00fcl\u00fck ve benzeri kemik, geyikboynuzu, fildi\u015fi gibi yeni gere\u00e7ler (malzemeler) \u00fczerinde egemenlik ve uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n daha geni\u015f \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi, yukar\u0131 paleolitik evreyi [orta paleolitikten] ay\u0131rt edicidir. \u0130nsanlar art\u0131k [yukar\u0131 paleolitikte] kendilerine bir mamut \u00f6ld\u00fcrme ya da onun derisini y\u00fcz\u00fcp alma gibi yak\u0131n gereksinimlerini kar\u015f\u0131layacak bir \u201cara\u00e7 tak\u0131m\u0131\u201d sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f olmakla yetinmediler. Ayn\u0131 zamanda, kendilerine, ara\u00e7 yapmak i\u00e7in gerekli ara\u00e7lar, hatta \u201cara\u00e7 yapan ara\u00e7lar\u201d olarak [bu anlamda] ikincil, hatta \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcl basamak ara\u00e7lar sa\u011flar oldular. B\u00f6ylece, \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131ndan mamut di\u015fleri, fildi\u015fleri \u00fczerinde grav\u00fcr kaz\u0131yacak kadar oyma kalemleri (hakk\u00e2k kalemleri)(13)<\/sup> yonttular. Kemi\u011fi ya da geyikboynuzundan bir nesneyi delebilecek \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 \u201cbiz\u2019ler\u201d (14)<\/sup> yapt\u0131lar. \u00d6zel i\u015fler i\u00e7in, \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131n\u0131n incelikle i\u015flenmesini sa\u011flayacak b\u0131\u00e7aklar, kaz\u0131y\u0131c\u0131lar ve sat\u0131rlar gibi ara\u00e7lar bi\u00e7imlendirdiler. \u00c7akmakta\u015f\u0131 i\u015fleyicili\u011finde, yeni bir teknik olarak, bas\u0131n\u00e7 uygulayarak ta\u015f k\u00fctlesinin her iki yan\u0131ndan ince yongata\u015flar koparma y\u00f6ntemini buldular. Bu i\u015fi yapan ki\u015fi, \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131na bir ba\u015fka ta\u015fla vurmak yerine, k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 kesin olmayan bir keski gibi kemik ya da tahta ara\u00e7la yonga \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lacak [kristal yap\u0131l\u0131] ta\u015f\u0131n k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131na g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir bask\u0131 uygular. Kemik ve fildi\u015fi arac\u0131 keskinle\u015ftirmek yolunda, yeni s\u00fcrtme ve cilalama s\u00fcre\u00e7leri geli\u015ftirildi. Bunlar yaln\u0131zca silah u\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n ve i\u011fnelerin de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda [a\u011fa\u00e7 k\u00fct\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi] tahtalar\u0131 yarabilecek \u201ckama\u201d (\u0130ng. wedge<\/em>) denen [\u00fc\u00e7gen bi\u00e7imli] ara\u00e7lar\u0131n ve keskilerin yap\u0131m\u0131nda kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Art\u0131k b\u0131\u00e7aklara tahta saplar [kabzalar] tak\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131. \u00d6yle ki, sap i\u015flevi g\u00f6recek ayn\u0131 dal par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerine a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f yar\u0131\u011fa, birden \u00e7ok \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 yongas\u0131n\u0131n soku\u015fturulmas\u0131yla, ilk kompozit<\/em> ara\u00e7lar<\/em> [\u00e7okpar\u00e7al\u0131 birle\u015fik aletler] yap\u0131labildi.<\/p>\n

Bu uzmanla\u015f[t\u0131r\u0131l]m\u0131\u015f ikincil ve \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc ara\u00e7lar\u0131n [kendileriyle ara\u00e7 yap\u0131lan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n] do\u011furdu\u011fu ilk sonu\u00e7, yap\u0131lmalar\u0131n\u0131n amac\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan y\u00f6nde, avc\u0131ya daha etkili silahlar, evkad\u0131n\u0131na daha iyi ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 sa\u011flamak oldu. Kompozit ara\u00e7lar, ilk \u00f6nce, hafif gene de saplanabilen, f\u0131rlat\u0131lan m\u0131zraklara ve dartlara tak\u0131labilen \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131, fildi\u015fi ya da kemik \u201cu\u00e7lar\u201d (\u0130ng. points<\/em>) ile olu\u015fturuldu.<\/p>\n

Mamutlar\u0131n, bizon, yaban\u00f6k\u00fcz\u00fc gibi iri otoburlar\u0131n kal\u0131n ve sa\u011flam postlar\u0131n\u0131 a\u015f\u0131p i\u00e7lerine girebilecek ilk f\u0131rlatma silahlar\u0131 (\u0130ng. missile weapons<\/em>) bunlard\u0131. Ukrayna\u2019da ve Moravya\u2019da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan, \u00e7ok geni\u015f alanlara da\u011f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mamut kemi\u011fi y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131, bu t\u00fcr silahlar\u0131n, o zamanlar tundra ve step olan s\u00f6z konusu b\u00f6lgelerde oradan oraya g\u00f6\u00e7en b\u00fcy\u00fck s\u00fcr\u00fclerin ard\u0131ndan gidilerek yap\u0131lan kolektif avlarda [tak\u0131m avlar\u0131nda] \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ba\u015far\u0131yla kullan\u0131labildi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir. \u00c7ok ge\u00e7meden f\u0131rlat\u0131lan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n erim uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 (menzilini) art\u0131rmak ve hedefi vuru\u015f derecelerini geli\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in baz\u0131 toplumlar [topluluklar] tahtadan, geyikboynuzundan ya da fildi\u015finden, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde bile Avustralyal\u0131larca ve Eskimolarca kullan\u0131lmakta olan m\u0131zrak f\u0131rlat\u0131c\u0131lar(15)<\/sup> (\u0130ng. spear-throwers<\/em>) yontmaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

Olduk\u00e7a sonraki bir tarihte, baz\u0131lar\u0131 geyikboynuzundan mahmuzlu bal\u0131k z\u0131pk\u0131nlar\u0131 ve kemikten (\u0130ng. \u201cgorge<\/em>\u201d denen)(16)<\/sup> basit oltalar yontmay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frendiler. Avrupa arkeolojisinde \u201cmezolitik\u201d [Ortata\u015f \u00c7a\u011f\u0131] denen M\u00d6 6000\u2019den sonraki evrede, tek bir kemik ya da geyikboynuzu par\u00e7as\u0131ndan yontulmu\u015f, daha sonra mahmuz benzeri \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131 eklenerek geli\u015ftirilen tam anlam\u0131yla [kanca bi\u00e7imli] bal\u0131k oltalar\u0131yla (\u0130ng. fish-hooks<\/em>) kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131r\u0131z. Hemen hemen ayn\u0131 tarihlerde Kuzey Avrupal\u0131lar, \u0131hlamur a\u011fac\u0131n\u0131n lif lif soyulan kabu\u011fundan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan \u015feritlerle, suya batmayan has\u0131r [bal\u0131k] a\u011flar\u0131 ve kemikten a\u011f [\u00f6rme] i\u011fneleri yapt\u0131lar. Tahta par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 [olta mantar\u0131 i\u015flevi g\u00f6rmesi i\u00e7in] ta\u015f a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131klar\u0131 ise, a\u011flar\u0131n\u0131 belli bir yerde tutmak i\u00e7in ba\u011flad\u0131klar\u0131 bal\u0131k a\u011f\u0131n\u0131 icat ettiler.<\/p>\n

\"\"Yukar\u0131 paleolitik toplumlar\u0131n f\u0131rlat\u0131lan silahlar ile somon (ton) bal\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi bal\u0131klar\u0131 yakalamada kulland\u0131klar\u0131 (\u0130ng. tackle<\/em> denen) arac\u0131n uygun bi\u00e7imlerde bir araya getirilmeleriyle av ard\u0131nda ko\u015fman\u0131n verimlili\u011fi \u00f6ylesine y\u00fckseldi ki, n\u00fcfus artabildi. Bir tak\u0131m\u0131n beslenmesinde orta ya da a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 paleolitikte gereksinenden \u00e7ok daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck b\u00f6lgeler yetebildi. \u0130ri ku\u015f t\u00fcrlerini ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck av hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131 avlamada kullan\u0131lan yaylar\u0131yla ve \u00e7ok \u00e7e\u015fitli bal\u0131k t\u00fcrlerini yakalamada yararlan\u0131lan oltalar\u0131yla, a\u011flar\u0131yla, hatta Balt\u0131k ve Kuzey Rusya y\u00f6relerinin elveri\u015fli b\u00f6lgelerinde oldu\u011fu gibi, ayn\u0131 yerde s\u00fcrekli ya\u015famak \u00fczere topra\u011fa yerle\u015febildiler.<\/p>\n

Ev kad\u0131nlar\u0131na gelince, kemik i\u011fneler ve grav\u00fcr kalemleri ve [\u00e7uvald\u0131z benzeri] kal\u0131n kaba i\u011fneler (\u0130ng. bodkin<\/em>) derilerin birle\u015ftirilip dikilmesi, hatta pantolonlar\u0131n, kollu cepkenlerin (yani ceketlerin) yap\u0131lmas\u0131 olana\u011f\u0131 verdi. S\u00f6z konusu giysiler, paleolitik steplerde mamut avlaman\u0131n ve Kuzey Rusya\u2019da mezolitikte ve daha sonraki zamanlarda topra\u011fa yerle\u015fik ya\u015fam s\u00fcrmenin neredeyse zorunlu \u00f6nko\u015fullar\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Son olarak, paleolitik ve mezolitik ara\u00e7lar, kad\u0131n erkek cinsleri aras\u0131ndaki eme\u011fin i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n orta paleolitikte belirginle\u015fmeye ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n daha a\u00e7\u0131k g\u00f6stergeleri durumundayd\u0131. Buraya kadar ele al\u0131nan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n hi\u00e7biri, grup i\u00e7inde bundan ba\u015fka bir i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n apa\u00e7\u0131k g\u00f6stergesi olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnmemektedir. Herhangi bir kimsenin, bir grav\u00fcr kalemi, oyucu ya da delici bir \u201cbiz\u201d yapabilece\u011fi ve bunlarla bir dart ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ya da bir z\u0131pk\u0131n\u0131 yontabilece\u011fi, hi\u00e7 de\u011filse kuramsal olarak s\u00f6ylenebilir. Benzeri bir yorum belki tahta do\u011framac\u0131l\u0131k ara\u00e7lar\u0131 i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erli olabilir.<\/p>\n

G\u00fcney Rusya\u2019daki yukar\u0131 paleolitik toplumlar [topluluklar] a\u011fa\u00e7 k\u00fct\u00fcklerini, mamut fildi\u015finden ya da geyikboynuzundan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f kama bi\u00e7imli takozlar\u0131, \u00fczerlerine, \u00e7\u0131plak elle tutulan bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131yla ya da bir \u00e7atall\u0131 dal\u0131n veya geyik boynuzunun \u00e7atal\u0131n\u0131n sap olarak tutturuldu\u011fu bir \u00e7eki\u00e7le vurarak yar\u0131p b\u00f6lme y\u00f6ntemini g\u00f6renek edinmi\u015flerdi. Mezolitik zamanlarda sert t\u00fcr\u00fcnden \u00e7ak\u0131lta\u015flar\u0131na, yontularak kama bi\u00e7imi verilebildi ve eskiden beri geyikboynuzundan kamalara yap\u0131lageldi\u011fi gibi, s\u00fcrt\u00fcl\u00fcp d\u00fczle\u015ftirilerek keskin k\u0131y\u0131lar kazand\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131 (\u00c7iz. 14).<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

\u00c7akmakta\u015f\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f (\u0130ngilizcede genellikle celt<\/em> denen) keskin k\u0131y\u0131 kazand\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f balta t\u00fcr\u00fc ara\u00e7lar, yontma i\u015flevi g\u00f6rmeleri i\u00e7in balta ba\u015flar\u0131 (\u00c7iz. 12 ve 13) ya da keser ba\u015flar\u0131 olarak (\u00c7iz. 21) kullan\u0131lmak \u00fczere, bir odun ya da geyikboynuzu sapa tutturulabildiler.(17)<\/sup> B\u00f6ylece, Kuzey Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n mezolitik toplumlar\u0131 olduk\u00e7a etkili bir yontma ara\u00e7lar\u0131 tak\u0131m\u0131na sahip oldular. Ne var ki s\u00f6z konusu balta ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ya da keser ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n, \u00e7o\u011fu \u00f6rnekte bizim balta ba\u015flar\u0131m\u0131z gibi sap tak\u0131lmak \u00fczere delinmi\u015f olmad\u0131klar\u0131; bunun yerine bir sapa soku\u015fturulduklar\u0131 ya da sap\u0131n \u00fczerine ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131 g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7\u0131r\u0131lmamal\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bu t\u00fcr ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerle donanm\u0131\u015f olarak, a\u011fa\u00e7 g\u00f6vdelerini oyup kanolar yapabildiler. Hatta k\u0131sa d\u00f6\u015femelik dikd\u00f6rtgen tahtalar (\u0130ng. planks<\/em>) kesip, onlara kano k\u00fcrekleri, k\u0131zak ayaklar\u0131 (\u0130ng. sledge-runners<\/em>) bi\u00e7imi verebildiler. \u00d6yle ki bunlardan baz\u0131lar\u0131 turba batakl\u0131klar\u0131nda [\u00e7\u00fcr\u00fcmeden] zaman\u0131m\u0131za dek kalabilmi\u015flerdir. Ta\u015f ara\u00e7lar bu t\u00fcr i\u015flerin yap\u0131lmas\u0131na olduk\u00e7a uygundular. Hatta di\u015fi ve erkek ge\u00e7me girintili \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 kaba zivanalar(18)<\/sup> [\u0130ng. mortice<\/em> and<\/em> tenon joints<\/em>] yap\u0131lmas\u0131na yeterliydiler. Bu ara\u00e7lar, geni\u015f bir alanda a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131 kesme i\u015flerine, \u00f6rne\u011fin ormanl\u0131k yeri a\u011fa\u00e7lardan temizleyip a\u00e7maya yaramayacak denli hafif ve k\u0131r\u0131lgand\u0131lar. Ayn\u0131 zamanda, bal\u0131k kuyru\u011fu bi\u00e7imli ge\u00e7me gibi do\u011frama i\u015flerinin alt\u0131ndan kalkabilecek nitelikte de\u011fildiler. D\u00f6\u015femelik tahtalar\u0131 birle\u015ftirmede kullan\u0131lan \u00f6teki ge\u00e7me i\u015flerinin alt\u0131ndan kalkamayacak denli hantal ve kabayd\u0131lar. Bunlar\u0131nkine benzer bir ara\u00e7 i\u015f\u00e7ili\u011fi, ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 tak\u0131m\u0131, ba\u015fka do\u011framac\u0131l\u0131k gelenekleri do\u011frultusunda ba\u015fka yerlerde de geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f olabilir. Ama ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan (anlat\u0131lan) bu do\u011framac\u0131l\u0131k gelene\u011fi, genelde t\u00fcm neolitik toplumlarca kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019da kullan\u0131lmas\u0131, Kuzey Avrupa neoliti\u011findeki kadar eski tarihlere dayanabilir. Ama bildi\u011fimiz, bu gelene\u011fin Britanya ve Danimarka gibi yerlerde ba\u015far\u0131yla kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131.<\/p>\n

Yukar\u0131da betimlenen silahlar\u0131n ve ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerin herhangi birine, onlar\u0131 yapm\u0131\u015f ve kullanm\u0131\u015f bulunan erkeklerce ya da kad\u0131nlarca \u201csahip olunmu\u015f\u201d (\u0130ng. belong<\/em>) olabilir. Hatta sahipleri \u00f6ld\u00fcklerinde onlarla birlikte g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f bulunabilirler. Onlara sahip olunmas\u0131 gene de, sahiplerine, yolda\u015flar\u0131 \u00fczerinde herhangi bir zorlay\u0131c\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7 kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015f de\u011fildir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc herhangi bir kimse, elinin alt\u0131nda kolayl\u0131kla bulabilece\u011fi gere\u00e7lerden (malzemeden) o ara\u00e7lar\u0131 yapabilirdi. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye yer yoktu ve ekonomik s\u0131n\u0131flar bulunmamaktayd\u0131. Tersine, ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerin kullan\u0131m\u0131nda i\u015fbirli\u011fine gidilmesi, en az\u0131ndan, ki\u015filerin ve gruplar\u0131n\u0131n ya\u015farkalmas\u0131 i\u00e7in asal bir gereklilikti. Tek ba\u015f\u0131na bir avc\u0131, o yetersiz silahlarla bir mamut ya da ay\u0131 ile ba\u015f edemezdi. \u00d6rne\u011fin Neanderthaller, ancak bir tak\u0131m [bir avc\u0131 tak\u0131m\u0131] olu\u015fturarak avlanmalar\u0131 yoluyla kendilerini mamut etiyle, ay\u0131 bifte\u011fiyle ge\u00e7indirebilmi\u015flerdi. Topraklara ve \u00fczerindeki b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fcr\u00fcnlerine, t\u00fcm topluluk\u00e7a sahip \u00e7\u0131k\u0131ld\u0131. Ki\u015filerin avlanma, bal\u0131k tutma haklar\u0131, toplulu\u011fun d\u00fczenlemesine ba\u011fl\u0131yd\u0131. \u00c7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n yaban\u0131l topluluklar\u0131, av mevsimlerinin [y\u0131l\u0131n belli bir d\u00f6nemi i\u00e7in] kapanmas\u0131 gelene\u011fini b\u00f6yle dayatabilmektedirler.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Neolitik evre ve ara\u00e7lar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Neolitik evre i\u00e7inde, <\/strong>bu t\u00fcr bir ilkel kom\u00fcnizm varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmekte h\u00e2l\u00e2 ayak diretmekte olabilir. Bu konuda sonucu belirleyici yenilik, yiyecek bitkilerinin, hepsinden \u00f6nemlisi tah\u0131llar\u0131n \u00fcretilmesi oldu. Yenilik ayn\u0131 zamanda, bu i\u015fin, s\u0131\u011f\u0131r, koyun, ke\u00e7i veya domuz yeti\u015ftirilmesiyle bir arada y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmesindeydi. Toplum kendine yiyecek sa\u011flama (ikmal) kaynaklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir denetim elde etti. \u00d6yle ki bu denetim, n\u00fcfusu art\u0131rabilecek derecedeydi ve art\u0131rd\u0131 da. Neolitik ekonominin en yal\u0131n ve belki en eski bi\u00e7imi, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck toprak par\u00e7alar\u0131 yani bah\u00e7eler \u00fczerinde y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen ekim bi\u00e7imiydi. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn bu evredeki barbar(19)<\/sup> kabileleri aras\u0131nda ekip bi\u00e7me i\u015fi, her \u00f6rnekte g\u00fcvenle kad\u0131nlara b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu ise, cinsler aras\u0131 i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn daha da vurgulanm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 demektir. \u0130\u015fledikleri toprak par\u00e7alar\u0131 \u00fczerinde \u00fcrettikleri, toplulu\u011fun en g\u00fcvenilir yiyecek kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kad\u0131n\u0131n ekonomik konumunu g\u00fc\u00e7lendirir. Bir toprak par\u00e7as\u0131ndan sa\u011flanan \u00fcr\u00fcn, genellikle o topra\u011f\u0131 i\u015fleyenindir. Ama \u00fcr\u00fcnleri \u00fczerindeki haklar\u0131 bir\u00e7ok akraban\u0131n iyi tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f ba\u015fka hak savlar\u0131yla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r. \u00dcr\u00fcnlerin topra\u011f\u0131 i\u015fleyenin olmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n topra\u011fa topluluk\u00e7a sahip \u00e7\u0131k\u0131l\u0131r. Toprak belli aralarla yeniden b\u00f6l\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. Tar\u0131msal \u00fcretim amac\u0131yla geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f yeni ara\u00e7larla mezarlar i\u00e7inde \u00e7ok ender kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131, onlar \u00fczerinde ki\u015fisel sahiplik tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yolunda bir izlenim yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 notunu da eklemenin yeridir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, ekip bi\u00e7me i\u015finin kendisi herhangi bir s\u0131n\u0131f ayr\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 gerektirmi\u015f de\u011fildir. Ama art\u0131k bir insan\u0131n, kendisini ya\u015famda tutabilece\u011finden fazla \u00fcretebilece\u011fi duruma gelindi\u011fine g\u00f6re, tutsaklar\u0131, k\u00f6le olarak tutma \u00e7abas\u0131na de\u011fer bir tutum olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclebilirdi.<\/p>\n

\"\"Yiyecek \u00fcretimi yeni ara\u00e7lar\u0131, tarlalar\u0131 s\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in (belki delinmi\u015f bir ta\u015f ge\u00e7irilerek a\u011f\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir sivri sopadan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmayan) \u201cdikele\u00e7 sopas\u0131\u201d (\u0130ng. digging stock<\/em>) arac\u0131n\u0131 gerektirdi (\u00c7iz. 37). Ucunda bir ta\u015f b\u0131\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 bulunan e\u011fri bir sopa olan (\u00c7iz. 21) \u00e7apa (\u0130ng. hoe<\/em>) arac\u0131na gerek duyuldu. \u00dcr\u00fcn\u00fc dev\u015firebilmek i\u00e7in orak (\u0130ng. sickle<\/em>) arac\u0131n\u0131n (\u00f6nce \u00fczerine yar\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir sopa, sonralar\u0131 bir hayvan\u0131n \u00e7ene kemi\u011fine, herhangi bir do\u011fal yap\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 deste\u011fiyle testere di\u015fi gibi dizilen \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 yongalar\u0131n\u0131n soku\u015fturulmas\u0131yla olu\u015fturulmu\u015f arac\u0131n) (\u00c7iz. 48) geli\u015ftirilmesine neden oldu yiyecek \u00fcretimine ge\u00e7ili\u015fi. \u00dcretime bu ge\u00e7i\u015f, harman d\u00fcveninin, [yaba gibi] savurma ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131(20)<\/sup> ve son olarak tah\u0131l\u0131 una d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in bir havan ya da ta\u015f elde\u011firmenini (\u00c7iz. 46; \u0130ng. quern<\/em>)(21) <\/sup>gerektirdi. Elde\u011firmeni, demir \u00e7a\u011f\u0131na dek, ev kad\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n sert ta\u015ftan eyer bi\u00e7imli alt blok \u00fczerinde \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fc [semer bi\u00e7imli] bir ta\u015f arac\u0131n ileri geri \u00e7ekilmesinden olu\u015fuyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn \u00e7o\u011fu barbarlar\u0131 gibi \u00e7o\u011fu neolitik toplum da, bunlardan \u00f6te do\u011fada bulunmayan nesneler yapmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131: Bal\u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131, pi\u015firerek \u00e7\u00f6mleklere <\/strong>d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrd\u00fcler. Bitki liflerinden ya da koyun y\u00fcn\u00fcnden iplikler<\/strong> b\u00fckt\u00fcler. \u00c7\u00f6mlek\u00e7i kad\u0131n, kaplar\u0131n\u0131 elle bi\u00e7imlendirmi\u015f, hi\u00e7bir \u00f6zel araca gereksinim duymam\u0131\u015f olmakla birlikte, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcnler [\u00e7\u00f6mlekleri] birer ara\u00e7 say\u0131labilir. \u00d6rg\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn bir kirman<\/strong> kullanmas\u0131 gerekebilirse de, bu, ucuna yak\u0131n yerde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir ta\u015f disk ya da a\u011f\u0131r\u015fak ile dengesi sa\u011flanarak elle d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclen tahta bir \u00e7ubuktan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmayabilir. Gene de d\u00f6ner devinimi sa\u011flamaya yaramaktad\u0131r. Ve ipleri dokumalara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrme yolunda bir eldokuma tezgah\u0131 icat edildi. Bu, hareketli bir\u00e7ok par\u00e7as\u0131 bulunan bir tahta \u00e7er\u00e7eve olmakla birlikte, g\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fcn en karma\u015f\u0131k d\u00fczene\u011fi (mekanizmas\u0131) idi. En eski M\u0131s\u0131r dokuma tezgahlar\u0131nda bu \u00e7er\u00e7eve yatay, Avrupa\u2019da ve Asya\u2019da dikey kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. \u00c7\u00f6zg\u00fc ipleri(22)<\/sup> bal\u00e7\u0131k disklere ya da hareketli bir yatay \u00e7ubu\u011fa ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f olarak as\u0131l\u0131 tutulmaktayd\u0131 (\u00c7iz. 62).<\/p>\n

\"\"T\u00fcm bu i\u015flemler, her evhalk\u0131nda (hanede) ola\u011fan durumda (normalde) yaln\u0131zca tarlalar\u0131 i\u015flemekle, tah\u0131l\u0131 \u00f6\u011f\u00fctmekle, yiyece\u011fi pi\u015firmekle kalmayan, ayn\u0131 zamanda ev i\u00e7in gerekli kaplar\u0131 yapan, ip e\u011firip b\u00fcken, onu dokuyarak beze ya da kuma\u015fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcren ve par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 birle\u015ftirerek dikip giysi yapan evkad\u0131n\u0131nca y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

Erkekler hayvan avlayacak ve bal\u0131k tutacaklard\u0131. Varsa s\u0131\u011f\u0131rlara bakacaklar, toprak par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 [ta\u015flardan, yabanotlar\u0131ndan vb.] temizleyeceklerdi. Genellikle yerel gere\u00e7lerden (malzemeden) olmak \u00fczere, gerekli g\u00f6r\u00fclen yal\u0131n (basit) ara\u00e7lar\u0131 yapacaklard\u0131. Yapt\u0131klar\u0131 bu t\u00fcr i\u015fler i\u00e7in, yukar\u0131da betimlenenlere ek olarak, yaln\u0131zca bir \u00f6nemli ara\u00e7 geli\u015ftirilmi\u015fti. Bu, \u201cyay delgi\u201d (\u0130ng. bow-drill<\/em>) idi. Temelde, d\u00f6ner mil i\u015flevi g\u00f6ren bir tahta \u00e7ubuk ile, kiri\u015fi bu \u00e7ubu\u011fun \u00e7evresinde bir tur atacak bi\u00e7imde doland\u0131r\u0131lan yaydan olu\u015fur. Mil, yay\u0131n ileri geri [ya da sa\u011fa sola] devindirilmesiyle [h\u0131zla] d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr (\u00c7iz. 31). Milin ucunda, z\u0131mpara i\u015flevi g\u00f6ren kumlu bir u\u00e7 (el alt\u0131nda varsa da z\u0131mpara) bulunur. Mil, ucu d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcrken iten, bir \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131ndan veya kaval kemi\u011finden, eklem kemi\u011finden, ya da tahtadan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Bu gere\u00e7ler yerine metal ucun konmas\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bu icat (bulu\u015f) orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n sonlar\u0131na dek de\u011fi\u015fmeden kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bug\u00fcn bile bir\u00e7ok [\u00e7a\u011fda\u015f ilkel] kabile aras\u0131nda kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.(23)<\/sup> B\u00f6yle bir ara\u00e7, tahtay\u0131, kemi\u011fi, kayay\u0131 hatta akik gibi de\u011ferli ta\u015flar\u0131 delmede kullan\u0131lacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u0130nsan\u0131n geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi ilk ara\u00e7 \u00f6rnekleri.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u0130nsanlar bundan sonra, ara\u00e7 yapmaya uygun kaliteli ta\u015flar bulmak i\u00e7in, tebe\u015fir katmanlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda (geyikboynuzundan kazmalar\u0131n, \u00e7apalar\u0131n, ta\u015ftan ya da geyikboynuzundan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f kamalar\u0131n, geyikboynuzundan levye kald\u0131ra\u00e7lar\u0131n, \u00f6k\u00fcz k\u00fcrek kemi\u011finden k\u00fcreklerin<\/strong> ve geyikboynuzundan ya da odundan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f t\u0131rm\u0131klar\u0131n deste\u011fiyle) maden kuyular\u0131 a\u00e7t\u0131lar; galeriler oydular. \u00d6yle ki k\u00fcrek kemi\u011finin anatomideki ad\u0131n\u0131n bile Latincede \u201ck\u00fcrek\u201d i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan spatula<\/em> olmas\u0131, bu kemiklerin k\u00fcrek olarak kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyor. \u0130ngiltere\u2019nin Downs yerinde varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 madencilerininki gibi topluluklar, \u00fcr\u00fcnlerini, \u00e7ift\u00e7i k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin yiyecek fazlalar\u0131 ile takas eden uzman madenciler durumuna gelebildiler. Bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde madencilikte uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f ailelerin i\u015fletmi\u015f olabilecekleri Pennan Mavr gibi son derece iyi ta\u015flar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ocaklar\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerlerde \u201cbalta fabrikalar\u0131\u201d denebilecek yerle\u015fmelerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131k. Bu topluluklararas\u0131 uzmanla\u015fma d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, neolitik toplum i\u00e7inde, daha \u00f6nceki topluluklar\u0131nkinden \u00f6te bir uzmanla\u015fmaya gereksinim bulunmamaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Metal ara\u00e7lar ve Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Metal ara\u00e7lar\u0131n<\/strong> insanl\u0131\u011fa sokulu\u015fu, arkeologlarca, insanl\u0131k tarihinde yeni bir \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131<\/strong> denen d\u00f6nemin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Ger\u00e7ekten, metal\u00fcrjinin (M\u00d6 4000\u2019den az sonra Yak\u0131ndo\u011fu\u2019da icad\u0131n\u0131n ve onunla sa\u011flanan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n, toplumun yap\u0131s\u0131 \u00fczerinde derin etkileri oldu. \u00d6zellikle elzanaat\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n tar\u0131mdan ayr\u0131larak farkl\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131na etkileri b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fc (Engels, Origins,<\/em> 185; K\u00f6ken<\/em>, 191). Ancak Engels\u2019in yetmi\u015f y\u0131l \u00f6nce [g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczden 130 y\u0131l \u00f6nce] g\u00f6r\u00fclmedik bir a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131kla vurgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, bak\u0131r ve tun\u00e7, \u00e7ok pahal\u0131 olduklar\u0131 i\u00e7in, ta\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n yerini alabilmi\u015f de\u011fildi. Bak\u0131r ve tun\u00e7 ara\u00e7lar, uzmanlar<\/strong> taraf\u0131ndan, yani yiyeceklerini kendileri \u00fcretmeyen zanaat\u00e7\u0131larca ve ba\u015fka uzmanlarca cevherinden elde edilip, genellikle uzun yollar boyunca ta\u015f\u0131narak getirilen gere\u00e7lerden yap\u0131ld\u0131. S\u00f6z konusu metal ara\u00e7lar yaln\u0131zca art\u0131n\u0131n [art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn] sulu tar\u0131mdan elde edilip, M\u00d6 3000\u2019den ba\u015flayarak zorba (despot) monarklarca topland\u0131\u011f\u0131 Do\u011fu devletlerinde az \u00e7ok bulunabiliyordu. Barbarlar aras\u0131ndaysa hemen hemen yaln\u0131zca silahlar i\u00e7in ve s\u00fcslenme objeleri olarak kullan\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"Metal i\u015fleyicileri, \u00e7ift\u00e7ilerce, \u00fcrettiklerini metal i\u015fleyicilerinin i\u015flerinin karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 -gizemli g\u00f6r\u00fcnen- ustal\u0131klar\u0131na bor\u00e7lu g\u00f6ren kimselerce \u00fcretilen yiyeceklerle beslenen ilk uzman zanaat\u00e7\u0131lard\u0131. Do\u011fal olarak \u00f6zel ara\u00e7lar\u0131 olacakt\u0131. Metal cevherinin i\u00e7ine g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fc bulundu\u011fu sert kayalar\u0131 kazarak \u00e7\u0131karmak zorunda olan madencinin bak\u0131r m\u0131r\u00e7(24)<\/sup> (\u0130ng. gad<\/em>) ara\u00e7lar\u0131 vard\u0131. Macaristan\u2019da, bug\u00fcnk\u00fcler gibi sap delikli bir t\u00fcr kazma (\u00c7iz. 20) bulunmu\u015fsa da, keskiler, kamalar ve tokmaklar i\u00e7in, daha \u00e7ok \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131na ve ta\u015fa dayan\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Cevheri par\u00e7alamada ve m\u0131r\u00e7lar\u0131 saplamada, saplar\u0131, \u00e7eki\u00e7 ba\u015flar\u0131nda olu\u015fturulmu\u015f [\u00e7epe\u00e7evre] \u00e7ukurlu\u011fa s\u0131r\u0131mlarla ba\u011flan\u0131p tutturulmu\u015f ta\u015f \u00e7eki\u00e7ler (\u00c7iz. 8) kullan\u0131ld\u0131. M\u00d6 1500\u2019den sonra, \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f balyozlardaki gibi sap tak\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in bir delik a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f a\u011f\u0131r tun\u00e7 \u00e7eki\u00e7 ba\u015flar\u0131 (\u00c7iz. 7) bi\u00e7iminde tahta \u00e7eki\u00e7lere benzetilmi\u015f ara\u00e7lar, ta\u015f \u00e7eki\u00e7lerin ve balyozlar\u0131n yerini almaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Kayd\u0131raklar (\u0130ng. skips<\/em>), daha do\u011frusu tekerlekleri bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in [uzun] tepsiler denebilecek olan [toprak \u00fczerinde \u00e7ekilip itilerek kayd\u0131r\u0131lan] kara sallar\u0131, su yalaklar\u0131, tahta ba\u015fl\u0131 \u00e7eki\u00e7ler ve el merdivenleri, a\u011fa\u00e7 g\u00f6vdelerinden yontuldu. Daha sonra, maden kuyusuna sark\u0131t\u0131lan ipin kayarken ele zarar vermesinden koruyan deri eldivenler yap\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Metal ergiticilerin ve metal i\u015fleyicilerin bir hava ak\u0131m\u0131na [havan\u0131n \u00fcflenmesine] gereksinimleri vard\u0131. Ama M\u00d6 1500 dolaylar\u0131nda k\u00f6r\u00fck<\/strong> icat edilene dek, tepelik yerlerin eteklerindeki bo\u011fazlar boyunca esen yellerden yararlan\u0131lmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131. Ya da bir \u00fcfleme borusu boyunca dizilen deliklerden veya \u00e7\u00f6mlek u\u00e7lu kam\u0131\u015flardan her biri b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00e7abayla \u00fcfleyen \u00e7\u0131raklarla yetinilmek zorunda kal\u0131nd\u0131. Metal, \u00e7ok kal\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6mlek potalarda ergitildi. Bu potalar \u00f6ylesine kal\u0131n [ve a\u011f\u0131r] idi ki, oca\u011f\u0131n i\u00e7ine g\u00f6m\u00fclmesi ve \u00fcstten yak\u0131lmas\u0131 zorunlulu\u011fu do\u011fdu. Potalara bir \u015feyler konup al\u0131nabilmesi i\u00e7in, uzunca bir zaman boyunca ve t\u00fcm barbar topluluklarda, ye\u015fil dalc\u0131klar (f\u0131\u015fk\u0131nlar) kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Metal ma\u015falar ancak uygar devletlerde ve M\u00d6 1500\u2019den sonra kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Kal\u0131plar ya ta\u015fa oyuldu ya da bal\u00e7\u0131k i\u00e7inde bi\u00e7imlendirildi.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

S\u0131radan \u00f6rneklerinde bir barbar k\u00f6y\u00fc, k\u00f6yde kal\u0131p ya\u015fayan bir d\u00f6k\u00fcmc\u00fcy\u00fc(25)<\/sup> besleyemezdi. Metali\u015fi [kap ka\u00e7ak, ara\u00e7lar gibi] nesneler, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn kalayc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 Siyah Afrika\u2019da [ve son ony\u0131llara dek T\u00fcrkiye\u2019de] yapt\u0131klar\u0131 gibi, k\u00f6yden k\u00f6ye dola\u015fan gezgin metali\u015fi zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131nca yap\u0131ld\u0131 ve da\u011f\u0131t\u0131ld\u0131. \u00d6te yandan, Do\u011fu kentlerinde ve Do\u011fu Akdeniz kentlerinde g\u00f6r\u00fcnen kal\u0131c\u0131 metalciler ise, hammaddeyi devletten ya da devlet\u00e7e denetlenen tacirlerden ald\u0131lar. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc silah end\u00fcstrisindeki \u00f6neminden dolay\u0131, metal al\u0131\u015fveri\u015fi \u00fczerinde genellikle devlet tekeli bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"\u0130nce i\u015fler i\u00e7in bak\u0131r ve tun\u00e7, yeni ve daha etkili ara\u00e7lar -testereler, baltalar- sa\u011flad\u0131. Bunlar, baz\u0131 \u00fclkeler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda h\u00e2l\u00e2, ta\u015f baltalardaki gibi sapa [sap deli\u011finden ge\u00e7irilmi\u015f olmaks\u0131z\u0131n] tutturulmu\u015f durumdayd\u0131. Yunanistan\u2019da ve Macaristan\u2019da ise, sap deliklerine sahip (\u00c7iz. 18) olduk\u00e7a \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcml\u00fc \u00f6rnekleri kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bak\u0131rdan ve tun\u00e7tan keserler, keskiler, m\u0131r\u00e7lar, delgiler, m\u0131hlar, kerpetenler, b\u0131\u00e7aklar, ameliyat ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7leri, ustralar, biz\u2019ler ve hatta sonunda, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kuyumcu \u00e7eki\u00e7 ve \u00f6rsleri g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc. Ama genelde, ormanc\u0131 baltas\u0131 gibi a\u011f\u0131r i\u015flere uygun ara\u00e7lar daha g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrlerde yoktu. Do\u011fu kentlerinde, yukar\u0131da s\u00f6z\u00fc edilen ara\u00e7lar\u0131 kullanan zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar, ayn\u0131 zamanda o zanaatlar\u0131n uzmanlar\u0131, ustalar\u0131 durumuna geldiler. Bunlar aras\u0131nda do\u011framac\u0131lar, masonlar (ta\u015f yontucular\u0131) duvarc\u0131lar, yontucular (heykelt\u0131ra\u015flar) m\u00fch\u00fcr grav\u00fcrc\u00fcleri, deri i\u015fleyiciler, mumyac\u0131lar, kuyumcular gibi zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"Ne var ki \u00e7ift\u00e7iler, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ilk on be\u015f y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131 (M\u00d6 3000-1500 aras\u0131) boyunca, vars\u0131l ve ileri derecede uygarla\u015fm\u0131\u015f M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da ve daha da fazla olarak barbar Avrupa\u2019da topra\u011f\u0131 i\u015flerken, yaln\u0131zca tahta, kemik, ta\u015f neolitik ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7le \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak zorundayd\u0131lar. Ancak daha sonraki tarihlerde, kendilerine baz\u0131 metal oraklar sa\u011fland\u0131. S\u00f6z konusu [M\u00d6 3000-1500 aras\u0131] d\u00f6nem boyunca, koyunlar\u0131n y\u00fcnleri, makaslar\u0131n bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ko\u015fullarda, yolunarak al\u0131nd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ba\u015f \u00fcretici etkinlikler kad\u0131nlardan erkeklere ge\u00e7iyor<\/strong><\/p>\n

Bununla birlikte, en eski Do\u011fu kentlerinin (M\u00d6 3000 dolaylar\u0131nda) kurulmas\u0131ndan olduk\u00e7a \u00f6nceleri, bir saban\u0131n<\/strong> ve bir boyunduru\u011fun icad\u0131yla, tar\u0131m alan\u0131nda bir devrim ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bulunuyordu. En eski sabanlar t\u00fcm\u00fcyle tahtadan olup (\u00c7iz. 44) baz\u0131 \u00f6rneklerinde tek par\u00e7ayd\u0131lar. Bunlar topra\u011f\u0131n y\u00fczeyine ancak \u00e7izik atabilecek ara\u00e7lard\u0131. Bir e\u011fri plaka (\u0130ng. moul-board<\/em>)(26)<\/sup> ve bir saban demiri (\u0130ng. coulter<\/em>)(27)<\/sup> ile donat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, kesekleri alt\u00fcst edebilecek sabanla ancak demir \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda, M\u00d6 1000 dolaylar\u0131nda, Kuzey Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131ld\u0131. B\u00f6yle bir d\u00fczenek \u0131l\u0131man iklim b\u00f6lgesinin en verimli topraklar\u0131n\u0131n i\u015flenmesinde b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131maktayd\u0131. Saban yaln\u0131zca tar\u0131m\u0131n verimlili\u011fini b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde art\u0131rmakla ve devinime getirici olarak insan g\u00fcc\u00fc d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir g\u00fcc\u00fcn [hayvan g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn] kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 ba\u015flatmakla kalmad\u0131. Ayn\u0131 zamanda toplumda, ba\u015f \u00fcretici etkinli\u011fin kad\u0131nlardan erkeklere ge\u00e7mesine de yol a\u00e7t\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc s\u0131\u011f\u0131r yeti\u015ftiricili\u011fi eskiden beri hep bir erkek i\u015fi olagelmi\u015fti. Kad\u0131nlar toprak par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 \u201c\u00e7apalar\u201d, ama erkekler onu \u201cs\u00fcrer\u201d. Ku\u015fkusuz ta\u015f [u\u00e7lu] bir saban yapabilirsiniz; ama saban tar\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n tam da tun\u00e7 ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerin kullan\u0131m\u0131 zaman\u0131na denk d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc an\u0131msan\u0131rsa, ilk sabanlar\u0131n ve \u00f6k\u00fcz boyunduruklar\u0131n\u0131n, metal ara\u00e7larla tahtadan yontulmu\u015f olmas\u0131 daha olas\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor.<\/p>\n

\"\"Saban\u0131n kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flan\u0131\u015f\u0131yla a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 ayn\u0131 tarihlerde, bir ba\u015fka beceri alan\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n elinden al\u0131n\u0131p end\u00fcstrile\u015ftirilmi\u015f [profesyonel zanaat konusu edilmi\u015f] idi. Metal ara\u00e7lar, do\u011framac\u0131ya, ta\u015f ara\u00e7larla sa\u011flanabilecek olandan daha d\u00fczg\u00fcn ve daha zarif i\u015f\u00e7ilik g\u00f6sterme yetene\u011fi kazand\u0131rd\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, tahta plakalar\u0131n birbirine [m\u0131h, \u00e7ivi kullan\u0131lmaks\u0131z\u0131n], bal\u0131k kuyru\u011fu ve \u00f6teki bi\u00e7imlerle tutturuldu\u011fu \u201cge\u00e7me\u201d i\u015fleri yap\u0131lmas\u0131 olana\u011f\u0131n\u0131 metal ara\u00e7lar sunmu\u015ftu. Bunun do\u011framac\u0131l\u0131k alan\u0131nda al\u0131nan en \u00f6nemli sonucu, tekerlek<\/strong> icad\u0131 oldu. Tekerin en g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpan kullan\u0131m\u0131, ta\u015f\u0131ma alan\u0131nda, hantal y\u00fck k\u0131zaklar\u0131n\u0131n tekerlekli arabalara ya da bir sava\u015f arabas\u0131na (\u0130ng. war-chariot<\/em>)(28)<\/sup> d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesinde g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc. Ama h\u0131zla d\u00f6nen [yatay] bir \u00e7arkla, yani dik bir eksene yatay ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f tahta, ta\u015f, ya da bal\u00e7\u0131k disk bi\u00e7iminde \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7i \u00e7ark\u0131yla, bir kad\u0131n\u0131n elle be\u015f g\u00fcnde yapabilece\u011fi i\u015fi bir erkek, bir tutam bal\u00e7\u0131ktan be\u015f dakika i\u00e7inde \u00e7\u0131karabilir. Ne var ki o erke\u011fin bir uzman, bir profesyonel olmas\u0131 gerekiyordu. B\u00f6ylece, \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7ilik makinele\u015ftirilen (mekanize) ilk elzanaat\u0131 (\u0130ng. craft<\/em>) oldu. Ve b\u00f6ylece de ev kad\u0131n\u0131, g\u00fcnl\u00fck ev i\u015flerinin birinden daha yoksun edildi. Bundan sonra art\u0131k \u00e7\u00f6mlek kaplar\u0131n\u0131 iyi bu\u011fday ya da dokuma kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda profesyonel \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7iden almas\u0131 gerekecektir.<\/p>\n

Makinelerinin pek karma\u015f\u0131k olmamas\u0131 ve hammaddesi kilin hemen her yerde bulunabilmesi olana\u011f\u0131yla (erkek) \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7i zanaat\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, ekonomik \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc bir Do\u011fu devleti i\u00e7inde bile s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebildi.<\/p>\n

\"\"\u00d6zel m\u00fclkiyet ve s\u0131n\u0131flara b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ama Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131, ilkel kom\u00fcnizmin son bulu\u015funa ve toplumun s\u0131n\u0131flara b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne tan\u0131k oldu. Barbar topluluklar aras\u0131nda, asl\u0131nda toprak, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 boyunca, hatta ondan sonra bile, topluluk m\u00fclk\u00fc olarak kald\u0131. Ancak s\u0131\u011f\u0131rlar, hatta neolitik zamanlarda bile bireysel sahipli\u011fe ge\u00e7irilmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Ve s\u0131\u011f\u0131rlar, art\u0131r\u0131labilen yeni bir vars\u0131ll\u0131k t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn -yani kapitalin- \u00f6rne\u011fi oldu. Ondan sonra, saban tar\u0131m\u0131 \u00e7apa tar\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n yerini al\u0131nca, sabana ko\u015fulan \u00e7ift \u00f6k\u00fcz\u00fc sahipli\u011fi, bir ba\u015fka \u00fcretim arac\u0131n\u0131n denetimini getirdi. S\u0131\u011f\u0131r vars\u0131ll\u0131\u011f\u0131na sahip olmak, sahiplerine, kim ona sahip de\u011filse o kimseyi s\u00f6m\u00fcrme \u015fans\u0131n\u0131 verdi. Ve b\u00f6yle bir s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn verdi\u011fi olanakla, o kimse, yeni, pahal\u0131 tun\u00e7 silahlar alabildi. O silahlarla da siyasal erk sahibi olabildi. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc tun\u00e7 silahlar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, herkesin yapabildi\u011fi ta\u015f baltalar\u0131n ve \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 b\u0131\u00e7aklar\u0131n hi\u00e7bir yarar\u0131 olmayacakt\u0131. Zulular\u0131n m\u0131zraklar\u0131n\u0131n Avrupal\u0131lar\u0131n ate\u015fli silahlar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 duruma benzer bir durum do\u011facakt\u0131. Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 barbarlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda bile, bir aristokrasinin, yeni silahlar\u0131 tekellerine alan bir \u015fefler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fu\u015funu g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Neolitik d\u00f6nem ara\u00e7lar\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Tar\u0131m\u0131n sulamaya ba\u011fl\u0131 bulundu\u011fu Yak\u0131ndo\u011fu\u2019da ve yaln\u0131zca her y\u0131l yeti\u015ftirilen bu\u011fday\u0131n de\u011fil, ku\u015faklar boyunca \u00fcr\u00fcn veren zeytinlerin ve \u00f6teki meyve a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n yeti\u015fti\u011fi Akdeniz \u00fclkelerinde, tun\u00e7 silahlar\u0131n denetimi, topra\u011f\u0131n -temel \u00fcretim arac\u0131n\u0131n- da denetimini kazand\u0131rabildi. Buralardaki Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 uygarl\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7inde kom\u00fcnal topraklar [topluluk topraklar\u0131] krallar\u0131n ve soylular\u0131n \u00f6zel topraklar\u0131 oldu. Bu kimseler, kendilerinin kirac\u0131lar\u0131 ya da serfleri olan tar\u0131mc\u0131lardan metallerin ve \u00f6teki hammaddelerin d\u0131\u015fal\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in ve art\u0131k yaln\u0131zca kendileri [soylular] i\u00e7in \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor olabilen uzman zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 besleyebilmek i\u00e7in gerekli yiyecek art\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 (\u0130ng. surplus food<\/em>) zorla \u00e7ekip alabilirdiler. Ama o uzman zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar da, hem hammaddeleri i\u00e7in hem de yapt\u0131klar\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcnlerin sat\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in krala ve toprak sahibine ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 duruma d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcler. Yeni s\u0131n\u0131f toplumunda elzanaatlar\u0131, k\u00f6yl\u00fc s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131yla (yeni end\u00fcstri metalinden [demirden] pek fazla yarar dev\u015firemedi\u011fini g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz s\u0131n\u0131fla) birlikte alt s\u0131n\u0131flar i\u00e7ine s\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fcler. Bunun nedeni belki de Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \u201cuygar\u201d devletlerinde hi\u00e7bir \u00f6nemli yeni arac\u0131n icat edilmeyi\u015fidir. Uygulamal\u0131 bilimde \u00f6nemli hi\u00e7bir ilerlemenin sa\u011flanamam\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Demir devrimi<\/strong><\/p>\n

Etkili bir demir ergitme y\u00f6nteminin bulunmas\u0131 [zanaat\u00e7\u0131lara] ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131ktan kurtulu\u015f olanaklar\u0131 yaratt\u0131. Belki daha do\u011frusu, daha \u00f6nce icat edilip, Ermenistan da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgesinin(29)<\/sup> bir barbar kabilesince o zamana kadar s\u0131r olarak saklanan b\u00f6yle bir y\u00f6ntemin yay\u0131lmas\u0131d\u0131r ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131ktan kurtulu\u015f sa\u011flayan. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu y\u00f6ntem, metali ucuzlatarak, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 zorba y\u00f6neticilerinin metal tekelini k\u0131rm\u0131\u015f oldu. Ger\u00e7ekten, \u00e7o\u011fu \u00f6rne\u011finde \u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kaliteli olan demir cevheri [yataklar\u0131] hemen her yerde bulunabilen bir kaynakt\u0131. Ayn\u0131 zamanda sert kayalar i\u00e7inde derin ocaklar\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektirmeden elde edilebilmekteydi. Bu durumda, herhangi bir k\u00f6yl\u00fc topluluk (M\u0131s\u0131r ve Mezopotamya gibi bol a\u011fa\u00e7tan yoksun<\/strong> durumda olmay\u0131p) [ergitme ve d\u00f6k\u00fcm ocaklar\u0131 i\u00e7in] yakacak kaynaklar\u0131na bol bol sahipse, tar\u0131m i\u015flerinin durgun ge\u00e7ti\u011fi k\u0131\u015f mevsimini, (\u0130sve\u00e7 k\u00f6yl\u00fclerinin ge\u00e7ti\u011fimiz [19.] y\u00fczy\u0131l i\u00e7inde yapt\u0131klar\u0131 gibi) kendileri i\u00e7in demir ergitmekle ge\u00e7irebilirlerdi. Ve ergittikleriyle, yaln\u0131zca metal baltalar ve tar\u0131m ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7leri de\u011fil, Do\u011fu devletlerinin silahl\u0131klar\u0131ndan sa\u011flanan silahlarla donat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u015f\u00f6valyelerine ve s\u0131radan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131na (askerlerine) meydan okuyacaklar\u0131 silahlar\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6kebilirlerdi. \u00d6yle ki, bak\u0131r\u0131n cevher yataklar\u0131n\u0131n ender bulundu\u011fu yerlerde uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f metalcilerce ergitilip, da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ise, \u00f6teki metal i\u015fleme uzmanlar\u0131nca ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 yap\u0131lmas\u0131 yolunda, tacirlerce y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc biliyoruz. Buna kar\u015f\u0131n, t\u00fcm Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n ve Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019n\u0131n Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 k\u00f6ylerinde demir ergitildi\u011fini g\u00f6steren izleri [haddehaneleri] g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde, Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda, Yunanistan\u2019daki, K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Asya\u2019daki ve Filistin\u2019deki az say\u0131lamayacak eski devlet, ekonomileri h\u00e2l\u00e2 ilkel kom\u00fcnizm \u00f6zelliklerini koruyan (\u00f6rne\u011fin toprak zilyetli\u011finde (\u0130ng. land tenure<\/em>) ilkel kom\u00fcnizm \u00f6zelli\u011fini s\u00fcrd\u00fcren) barbar topluluklarca y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131p yerlerini onlara b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ucuz metal ara\u00e7lar, insan\u0131n do\u011fa \u00fczerindeki denetimini ve eme\u011fin verimlili\u011fini b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde art\u0131rd\u0131. Ne var ki, yeni metal [demir] \u00e7o\u011fu k\u00f6yde \u00fcretilebilmi\u015fse de, demir i\u015fleyicili\u011fi elzanaatlar\u0131nda uzmanla\u015fmay\u0131 durduramad\u0131. Ne de s\u00f6z konusu zanaatlarda hammaddelerin ve yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mallar\u0131n al\u0131\u015fveri\u015finin artmas\u0131n\u0131 durdurabildi. Ve gene, metalin ba\u015f t\u00fcketicisi, daha \u00f6nceki gibi, silah end\u00fcstrisi olarak kald\u0131. Gene de demir, tar\u0131m\u0131n ve zanaat\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n geli\u015fmesine, pahal\u0131 tuncun daha \u00f6nce yapmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 derecede yarad\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Antik madenciler.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n en ba\u015flar\u0131nda, M\u00d6 1100 dolaylar\u0131nda, Filistin\u2019de k\u00f6yl\u00fcler, metal b\u0131\u00e7aklar kadar metal tar\u0131m ara\u00e7lar\u0131 -\u00e7apalar (\u00c7iz. 39 ve 40) saban demirleri (\u00c7iz. 45) ve oraklar (\u00c7iz. 50)- kullanmaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Ucuz demir baltalarla Avrupal\u0131 \u00e7ift\u00e7iler, orman\u0131n [tarla yap\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in] a\u011fa\u00e7lardan ar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u015fine var g\u00fc\u00e7leriyle sar\u0131labildiler. \u0130talya\u2019da demir m\u0131r\u00e7lar, manivelalar ve kazmalarla batakl\u0131klar\u0131 kurutmak i\u00e7in \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131. Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019da, \u00e7\u00f6ll\u00fck yerlere su getirilebilmesi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi bir d\u00fc\u015f olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. B\u00f6ylece tar\u0131m yap\u0131labilecek b\u00f6lgeler geni\u015fletilip, yiyecek sa\u011flama (yiyecek ikmali) olanaklar\u0131 art\u0131r\u0131labildi. \u00c7ok ge\u00e7meden koyunlar\u0131n k\u0131rp\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in yayl\u0131 demir makaslar (\u00c7iz. 53) icat edildi. Bu makaslar sa\u00e7 ve bez kesmede de kullan\u0131ld\u0131. MS d\u00f6nemimizin ba\u015flamas\u0131ndan \u00f6nce, Romal\u0131 \u00e7ift\u00e7iler ve istihk\u00e2mc\u0131lar, \u00e7e\u015fitli bi\u00e7imleriyle, gaga a\u011f\u0131zl\u0131 demir b\u0131\u00e7ak ba\u015fl\u0131klar\u0131 (\u0130ng. billhooks<\/em>, bak. \u00c7iz. 52) yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, kal\u0131\u00e7lar (\u00c7iz. 51)(30)<\/sup> ve onlar\u0131 tarladayken bileyebilmek i\u00e7in ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131r biley \u00f6rsleri (\u0130ng. mover\u2019s anvils<\/em>, bak. \u00c7iz. 59), \u00e7apa-k\u00fcrek kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 ara\u00e7lar(31) <\/sup>[bildik] kazmalar, k\u00fcrekler (\u00c7iz. 42), son sava\u015fta [Birinci D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda] kullan\u0131lanlara benzeyen \u201csiper kazma ara\u00e7lar\u0131\u201d (\u00c7iz. 41) dirgenler, k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 boydan boya demirle \u00e7er\u00e7evelenmi\u015f tahta k\u00fcrekler [bel\u2019ler?] gibi ara\u00e7lara sahip oldular.<\/p>\n

T\u00fcm bu geli\u015fmeler, elzanaatlar\u0131nda alt zanaat dallar\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131yla ve hammaddelerin ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131nda, ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 donan\u0131m\u0131nda daha az \u201ctoplumsal emek\u201d gerektiren, yani daha ucuzlayan zanaat ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n icad\u0131yla \u201ceme\u011fin verimlili\u011fi\u201dnin art\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcyd\u00fc. Elzanaatlar\u0131n\u0131n alt dallara ayr\u0131l\u0131p dallan\u0131p budaklanmas\u0131 kendini, yeni zanaatlar\u0131n bulunu\u015funda yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r. Demirciler gibi metal ara\u00e7 yap\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131na (\u0130ng. smiths<\/em>;(32) <\/sup>bak. \u00c7iz. 10) mente\u015feli ma\u015falar (\u00c7iz. 55) sa\u011fland\u0131. \u0130lerleme, geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f k\u00f6r\u00fckler, uzmanla\u015f[t\u0131r\u0131l]m\u0131\u015f \u00e7eki\u00e7ler dizisi (keski kalemleri, araca tak\u0131lan keskin ya da sivri \u201cu\u00e7\u201dlar) yay delgi yan\u0131nda h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131lmakta olan delgi (matkap) ve matkap u\u00e7lar\u0131 (\u0130ng. rymers<\/em>) gibi ara\u00e7larda yans\u0131d\u0131. Bunlara, M\u00d6 200\u2019den sonra, \u00e7ivi yapmada kullan\u0131lan \u00f6zel \u00f6rsler (\u00c7iz. 58) tel \u00e7ekmede kullan\u0131lan haddeler gibi daha bir incelikli ara\u00e7lar eklendi. Ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde do\u011framac\u0131lar i\u00e7in \u00e7er\u00e7eveli testere (\u00c7iz. 54) \u00e7ift sapl\u0131 h\u0131zarc\u0131 testereleri, \u201cdomuzt\u0131rna\u011f\u0131\u201d denen t\u00fcrden \u00e7eki\u00e7ler, baltalar\u0131n, keserlerin, yontucu kalemlerinin, manivelalar\u0131n ve delicilerin yeni yeni \u00e7e\u015fitleri eklendi. Hatta M\u00d6 50 dolaylar\u0131nda, planyalar (\u00c7iz. 36) ve matkaplar(33)<\/sup> g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

S\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 topumun yeni ata\u011f\u0131 ve k\u00f6lecilik<\/strong><\/p>\n

Roma ordular\u0131n\u0131n MS 43\u2019te, uzaktaki Britanya topraklar\u0131n\u0131, dinozorla\u015fm\u0131\u015f imparatorluklar\u0131na katt\u0131klar\u0131 tarihlerde, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde demircilerin ve \u00f6teki metal i\u015fleyicilerinin, do\u011framac\u0131lar\u0131n, [ta\u015f yontucu ve ta\u015f duvar \u00f6r\u00fcc\u00fc] masonlar\u0131n, kerpi\u00e7\/tu\u011fla d\u00f6\u015feyicilerinin (duvarc\u0131lar\u0131n), ayakkab\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n, berberlerin, terzilerin, de\u011firmencilerin ve benzeri \u00f6teki elzanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm el ara\u00e7lar\u0131 icat edilmi\u015f bulunuyordu. Ancak bundan \u00f6nce, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z k\u00f6yl\u00fc [konumunda] toprak sahipleri, yerlerinin k\u00f6le ya da serf tak\u0131mlar\u0131na a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in, topraklar\u0131ndan s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015flerdi. K\u00f6le eme\u011fi ile yar\u0131\u015fma (rekabet), hatta \u00f6zg\u00fcr [ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z] elzanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 bile, yeni bir s\u0131n\u0131f toplumu i\u00e7inde gene a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131flar konumuna d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f durumdayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Biraz \u00f6nce s\u00f6z\u00fc edilen ilk demir tar\u0131m ara\u00e7lar\u0131, belki ayn\u0131 zamanda onlar\u0131n hemen ard\u0131ndan betimlenen demirci gibi metal i\u015fleyicisinin ve [tahta] do\u011framac\u0131n\u0131n ara\u00e7lar\u0131 da, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131f devletlerinin(34)<\/sup> \u00fclkelerini i\u015fgal etmi\u015f barbar toplumlarca [topluluklarca](35) <\/sup>icat edilmi\u015f bulunuyordu. Ama baz\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131f devletleri, Asur\u2019da, Babilonya\u2019da, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da ve ba\u015fka yerlerde, varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmede ayak diretiyorlard\u0131. Bu yolda, emperyalist sava\u015flar\u0131 i\u00e7in kullanacaklar\u0131 bu yeni metali (demiri) benimsemi\u015f bulunuyorlard\u0131. Barbarlara(36)<\/sup> gelince, K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Asya\u2019da ve Persya\u2019da [\u0130ran\u2019da] kendilerini bir y\u00f6netici s\u0131n\u0131fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdi. En az\u0131ndan Filistin\u2019de, Yunanistan\u2019da ve \u0130talya\u2019da kom\u00fcnal toprak sahipli\u011fini ve i\u015fletimini \u00f6zel toprak m\u00fclklerine b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. D\u00fczenli [gelip ge\u00e7ici olmayan] bir \u00e7apul etkinli\u011fi i\u00e7in verilen sava\u015flarla, do\u011fal olarak, kabile topraklar\u0131ndan kendilerine d\u00fc\u015fen b\u00fcy\u00fck paylar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fcvenceye alan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 [askeri] \u00f6nderler, kal\u0131tsal prensler ve soylular durumuna geldiler. Bu konumlar\u0131n\u0131, uzman z\u0131rh yap\u0131c\u0131lar (\u0130ng. armourers<\/em>) taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcksek kaliteli metal cevherinden yap\u0131lan \u00fcst\u00fcn sava\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 sat\u0131n alarak s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebildiler (bak. Engels, Origins<\/em>, 187; K\u00f6ken<\/em>, 192). B\u00f6ylece s\u0131n\u0131f toplumu \u00e7ok geni\u015f b\u00f6lgeler \u00fczerinde h\u0131zla yeniden kurulabildi.<\/p>\n

Vars\u0131llar ile yoksullar olarak b\u00f6l\u00fcnme, ard\u0131ndan ipotekleri ve tefecili\u011fi getirecek bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f metal paran\u0131n (sikkenin) M\u00d6 700\u2019den sonra kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanmas\u0131yla daha bir belirginle\u015fti. Ayn\u0131 zamanda eme\u011fin giderek daha fazla i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne u\u011framas\u0131, elzanaatlar\u0131n\u0131n tar\u0131mdan ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u00fcrecini tamamlad\u0131. Elzanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131, kullan\u0131m i\u00e7in de\u011fil sat\u0131\u015f i\u00e7in \u201cmal\u201d (emtia) \u00fcretme durumunda b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck k\u00f6yl\u00fc toprak sahipleri, diyelim ge\u00e7imlik bu\u011fday yerine pazar i\u00e7in zeytin a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131 yeti\u015ftirmeye ba\u015flayanlar bile, ayn\u0131 a\u011fa tak\u0131ld\u0131lar. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc herkes, yeti\u015ftirdiklerini sat\u0131n alan, ba\u015fka herhangi bir ki\u015finin verebilece\u011finden daha iyi yeni bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f metal para veren tacirlere ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 duruma geldi (Engels, Origins<\/em>, 190; K\u00f6ken<\/em>, 196). Onlar b\u00f6yle ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 duruma d\u00fc\u015ferken s\u00fcr\u00fcp giden sava\u015flar k\u00f6le kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 (k\u00f6le ikmalini) art\u0131rd\u0131. Ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 tacirler k\u00e2rlar\u0131n\u0131 k\u00f6le sat\u0131n al\u0131m\u0131na yat\u0131r\u0131p, bu kimseleri, \u00f6zg\u00fcr elzanaat\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla giri\u015fti\u011fi yar\u0131\u015fma yolunda \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131racakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

M\u00d6 400\u2019de, Yunanistan\u2019\u0131n ve \u0130talya\u2019n\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck [kent] devletleri, k\u00f6lelerce ya da toprak kirac\u0131lar\u0131nca i\u015flenen m\u00fclklere ve k\u00f6lelerin ya da ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u015fliklere (at\u00f6lyelere) sahip kapitalistlerin egemenli\u011fi ve y\u00f6netimi alt\u0131ndayd\u0131lar. M\u00d6 200 – MS 50 aras\u0131nda Roma imparatorlu\u011fu (t\u00fcm bu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck devletleri ve Afrika ile Asya\u2019n\u0131n eski devletlerini ve de Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019daki barbar kentlerini yuttu\u011funda) tefecilerin ve k\u00f6le sahiplerinin imparatorlu\u011fu durumuna geldi. \u00c7ift\u00e7iler kadar zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar da, hukuksal konumlar\u0131 (stat\u00fcleri) ne olursa olsun, bir kez daha a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131flar i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcler.<\/p>\n

Ekonomik k\u00f6lele\u015ftirme, M\u00d6 500 dolaylar\u0131nda, emekten tutum sa\u011flayan makinelerin icad\u0131ndan sonra h\u0131z kazand\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu makineler, yukar\u0131da betimlenen el ara\u00e7lar\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 olarak, o denli pahal\u0131yd\u0131lar ki, ancak devletlerin ya da kapitalistlerin g\u00fcc\u00fc onlar\u0131 edinmeye yetiyordu.<\/p>\n

Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131nda, Stonehenge\u2019mizdeki \u00a0ton gelen s\u00f6ve(37)<\/sup> ta\u015flar\u0131 ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da B\u00fcy\u00fck Piramit [Keops] \u00fczerinde her biri ortalama \u00a0ton a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndaki 2.300.000 ta\u015f blo\u011fu, yaln\u0131zca iplerle ve tahta levyelerle yuvarlak k\u00fct\u00fcklerden ve kavisli takozlardan yararlan\u0131larak, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7abalarla s\u00fcr\u00fcklenip, dik duruma getirilebilmi\u015fti. Hatta Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda bile Asurlular, Musul \u00e7evresindeki saraylar\u0131nda bulunan tek par\u00e7a (yekpare) ta\u015ftan an\u0131tsal fig\u00fcrleri dikerken, ellerinde bunlardan daha iyi ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7ler bulunmuyordu. Bu t\u00fcr i\u015flemlerin g\u00f6sterildi\u011fi t\u00fcm M\u0131s\u0131r ve Asur resimlerinden, \u00f6k\u00fczlerin de\u011fil, yaln\u0131zca insanlar\u0131n \u00e7ekici-itici (\u0130ng. tractive<\/em>) g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor. M\u00d6 500\u2019den sonra Yunanl\u0131lar, makaralar\u0131, palanga tak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131, k\u0131rpma [y\u00fcn k\u0131rpma] makas\u0131n\u0131 ve bocurgat\u0131 icat ettiler. Kerpetenleri b\u00fcy\u00fcterek b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u00fctleleri kavrayacak makaslara (\u0130ng. scissors<\/em>) d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrd\u00fcler. \u0130\u00e7inde bulundu\u011fumuz MS\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar d\u00f6neminin ba\u015flar\u0131nda Yunanl\u0131lar ve Romal\u0131lar, a\u011f\u0131r nesneleri kald\u0131rmada ve \u00e7ok a\u011f\u0131r y\u00fcklerin yerlerini (manivelalarla) de\u011fi\u015ftirmede kullan\u0131lan ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lere sahip bulunuyorlard\u0131. \u00d6yle ki, bunlar sonraki y\u00fczy\u0131llarda, ta ki ge\u00e7ti\u011fimiz [19.] y\u00fczy\u0131lda geli\u015ftirilene dek, kullan\u0131lagelmi\u015ftir. Vin\u00e7ler, normalde iki ayakl\u0131 [iki dayanakl\u0131] olup, d\u00f6rt urganla dik konumda tutuluyorlard\u0131. Bocurgat, bir manivelayla, ya da \u00f6zel durumlarda ayak de\u011firmeniyle,(38)<\/sup> elbette k\u00f6lelerin eme\u011fiyle i\u015fletildi. Vin\u00e7ler i\u00e7in kal\u0131n kalaslar, sa\u011flam urganlar (hatta \u00e7elik bocurgat) \u00f6ylesine pahal\u0131yd\u0131lar ki, onlar\u0131 i\u015fleten i\u015f\u00e7iler de\u011fil, ancak kamu kurumlar\u0131 ya da kapitalist \u00fcstleniciler (m\u00fcteahhitler) sahip olabildiler.<\/p>\n

De\u011firmenin ve su \u00e7ark\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fimi<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u0130leriki geli\u015fmeler bak\u0131m\u0131ndan bundan da \u00f6nemlisi, ilk kez de\u011firmencilikte g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr bi\u00e7im alan \u201ckesintisiz d\u00f6ner devinim\u201d yolunun yeni yeni alanlarda kullan\u0131lmas\u0131d\u0131r. Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 ve Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 k\u00f6ylerinde bile tah\u0131l una, genelde evhalk\u0131nca d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. M\u00d6 500 dolaylar\u0131ndan ba\u015flayarak, Akdeniz [k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131] kentlerinde, tah\u0131llar\u0131n, [semer bi\u00e7imli] bir elta\u015f\u0131 par\u00e7as\u0131yla yass\u0131 bir ba\u015fka ta\u015f \u00fczerinde ileri geri s\u00fcrt\u00fc\u015flerle \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc elde\u011firmenlerinin yerini, bir d\u00f6ner elde\u011firmeni (\u0130ng. rotary quern<\/em>) almaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Onlar\u0131 daha sonra, d\u00f6ner elde\u011firmenlerinin (Alpler\u2019in kuzeyinde h\u00e2l\u00e2 barbarl\u0131k [k\u00fclt\u00fcr] evresinde ya\u015fayan) Kelt k\u00f6ylerinde kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 izledi. Britonlar d\u00f6ner elde\u011firmenine M\u00d6 50\u2019de, Cermenler ancak MS 300\u2019de sahip olabildiler. Bu yeni d\u00fczenek, temelde, ta\u015flardan birinin oda\u011f\u0131na dikilmi\u015f olup, \u00f6tekinin ortas\u0131ndaki delikten ge\u00e7irilen bir mil yoluyla birle\u015ftirilmi\u015f iki yuvarlak ta\u015f blo\u011fundan olu\u015fup, \u00fcsttekinin k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131na [yak\u0131n bir yere] saplanm\u0131\u015f dik bir tutanakla d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u0130ki de\u011firmen \u00f6rne\u011fi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

D\u00f6ner elde\u011firmenleri, evhalk\u0131n\u0131n [g\u00fcnl\u00fck] emek y\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fc azaltt\u0131. Ancak, dokuma tezgah\u0131n\u0131n neolitikteki etkisine ve diki\u015f makinesinin ge\u00e7ti\u011fimiz [19.] y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki sonucuna benzer bi\u00e7imde, bir evkad\u0131n\u0131nca ya da onun k\u00f6lelerince i\u015fletilen ev i\u00e7i kullan\u0131ml\u0131 ara\u00e7 olarak kald\u0131. Kendi ba\u015f\u0131na, \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7ilikte d\u00f6ner \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7i \u00e7ark\u0131n\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131na benzer yeni bir uzmanl\u0131k zanaat\u0131na yol a\u00e7mad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ama hemen hemen ayn\u0131 tarihlerde, ekmek pi\u015firicili\u011fi etkinli\u011fi makinele\u015ftirildi. T\u00fcm k\u0131r halklar\u0131 ve bir\u00e7ok kasaba halk\u0131, h\u00e2l\u00e2 kendi ununu \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fcp ekme\u011fini pi\u015firmeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmekteyken, kentlerde bu durum de\u011fi\u015fti. Oralarda ekmek ve kek, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7apta sat\u0131\u015fa sunulmak \u00fczere, yap\u0131mevlerinde [f\u0131r\u0131nlarda] yap\u0131ld\u0131. M\u00d6 500\u2019den ba\u015flayarak, f\u0131r\u0131n sahipleri f\u0131r\u0131nlar\u0131na, temelde d\u00f6ner elde\u011firmenlerininkiyle ayn\u0131 ilkeyle i\u015fletilen d\u00f6ner un de\u011firmeni kurup yerle\u015ftirmeye ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Elde\u011firmenlerinden bir farkla ki, bunlar\u0131n alt par\u00e7as\u0131 konik, \u00fcst par\u00e7as\u0131 kum saati bi\u00e7imli olup, \u00fcst\u00fcndeki bir delik, huni (\u0130ng. hopper<\/em>)(39) <\/sup>i\u015flevi g\u00f6rerek, tah\u0131l\u0131 d\u00fczenli tutarlarda [azar azar] b\u0131rakan t\u00fcrdendi. Dahas\u0131, elde\u011firmeninden \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olup, dolap beygiri gibi d\u00f6n\u00fcp duran bir e\u015fek ya da at [veya k\u00f6leler? \u00e7.n.] taraf\u0131ndan d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Bu, \u00f6k\u00fcz\u00fcn neredeyse \u00fc\u00e7 biny\u0131l \u00f6nce saban\u0131 ve arabay\u0131 \u00e7ekmesi i\u00e7in dizginleni\u015finden beri insan olmayan bir canl\u0131n\u0131n itici g\u00fcc\u00fcnden ilk yararlan\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fck ta\u015f de\u011firmenleri ve onlar\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran hayvanlar, onlar\u0131 edinmesiyle bir k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kapitalist durumuna gelen f\u0131r\u0131n sahibi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan, ku\u015fkusuz b\u00fcy\u00fck bir gider kalemi olu\u015fturmu\u015ftu. Pompei\u2019de, yani k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir ta\u015fra kasabas\u0131nda, tek bir f\u0131r\u0131n i\u00e7inde b\u00f6yle be\u015f de\u011firmen bulunuyordu. Benzeri de\u011firmenler, anla\u015f\u0131lan, madenlerde cevherin \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmesinde de kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Gene e\u015fek g\u00fcc\u00fcyle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan bir ba\u015fka de\u011firmen t\u00fcr\u00fc, kapitalist zeytinya\u011f\u0131 \u00e7iftliklerinde ya\u011f \u00e7\u0131karmada kullan\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Sonra, M\u00d6 100 dolaylar\u0131nda bir su \u00e7ark\u0131 [su dolab\u0131] icat edildi ve un de\u011firmenlerini d\u00f6nd\u00fcrmede [de] kullan\u0131l\u0131r oldu. Sonunda canl\u0131n\u0131n olmayan devinime ge\u00e7irici bir g\u00fc\u00e7, insan\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in dizginlenmi\u015f oluyordu. Onda da \u00e7arklar\u0131n d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclmesi i\u015fe kar\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. \u00c7ap\u0131 on, on bir ayak [3 m. dolaylar\u0131nda] olan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir tahta teker, \u00e7evresinde, \u00f6nce metal kovac\u0131klar [ma\u015frapalar] sonraki tarihlerde sular\u0131n \u00fczerinden akt\u0131\u011f\u0131 tahta kanat\u00e7\u0131klar ta\u015f\u0131maktayd\u0131. Su \u00e7ark\u0131 do\u011fal olarak dikey bir d\u00fczlem boyunca d\u00f6nmekteydi. Tahta bir milin (eksenin) \u00f6teki ucundaki di\u015fli \u00e7ark, dik bir dingilin di\u015flileri alt ucuna yak\u0131n yerdeki gene tahtadan bir \u00e7ark\u0131n di\u015flerine kenetleniyordu. Bu dingilin tepesinde bulunan, ona iki ba\u015fl\u0131 demir m\u0131hlarla tutturulmu\u015f \u00fcst de\u011firmen ta\u015f\u0131 ise, elbette yatay d\u00fczlem i\u00e7inde d\u00f6nmekteydi. Di\u015fli \u00e7ark 6 in\u00e7 [15 cm] kadar \u00e7apl\u0131 bir \u00e7ift tahta di\u015fliden olu\u015fup, d\u0131\u015f k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131na yak\u0131n yerde, \u00e7ark\u0131n di\u015flilerini olu\u015fturacak alt\u0131 dikey demir somunla birbirine tutturulmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

Su g\u00fcc\u00fcnden yararlanma yolundaki bu ilk uygulama, buhar makinesinin icad\u0131na dek, sonraki t\u00fcm \u201cg\u00fc\u00e7 de\u011firmenlerinin ve g\u00fc\u00e7 makinelerinin\u201d (\u0130ng. power mills<\/em>)(40)<\/sup> \u00f6rnek modeli oldu. Ne var ki, biny\u0131l\u0131 a\u015fan bir s\u00fcre boyunca, un de\u011firmenleri end\u00fcstrisi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ba\u015fka bir i\u015fe ender olarak uyguland\u0131lar. Onlardan, Roma imparatorlu\u011funun y\u0131k\u0131lmakta oldu\u011fu MS 400\u2019den sonraki tarihlere dek, hatta bu\u011fday \u00f6\u011f\u00fctme de\u011firmenlerinde bile, \u00e7ok az yararlan\u0131ld\u0131. Onlar yerine, benzeri, ama daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7apl\u0131 di\u015fli \u00e7arklarla i\u015fletilen, manivela kollar\u0131yla ya da ayakla d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclen silindirler bulunan, ayak de\u011firmenlerini (\u0130ng. treadmills<\/em>) \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmada k\u00f6leler kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Romal\u0131lar ve Helenci (Helenistik) D\u00f6nem Yunanl\u0131lar\u0131, teknik beceriden yoksun olmad\u0131klar\u0131 gibi kapital (sermaye) k\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da \u00e7ekmiyorlard\u0131. Gene de, emekten tutum sa\u011flayan makinelere, ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 sava\u015flardan sa\u011flanan [ucuz] k\u00f6le kaynaklar\u0131 k\u0131tla\u015fmaya ba\u015flayana dek, yat\u0131r\u0131m yapmad\u0131lar. S\u00f6z konusu kaynaklar kuruduktan sonraysa, yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mallar pazar\u0131 da \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015fe ge\u00e7mi\u015f bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n

Yukar\u0131da betimlenen [d\u00fczenekte] \u00e7ark\u0131n i\u015flevinin [su getirmek yerine su bo\u015faltmak yolunda] tersine \u00e7evrilmesiyle, \u00e7arklardan, tarlalar\u0131n sulanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in su \u00e7ekme, ya da madenlerdeki sular\u0131 bo\u015faltma yolunda yararlan\u0131labildi.<\/p>\n

Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n uygar Do\u011fu devletlerinde ve Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n erken d\u00f6neminde, tar\u0131mc\u0131, \u0131rmaktan suyu, \u0131rmak k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 bank\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fcksekli\u011fine dek, bir deri kova ile iple \u00e7ekerek sa\u011flayabilmekteydi. Olsa olsa, bir \u00f6k\u00fczden yararlanarak, uzun, yuvarlak, d\u00f6ner bir k\u00fct\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn, yani silindirin \u00fczerine sar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ipin \u00e7ekilmesiyle elde edebiliyordu. Veya bir \u00e7atall\u0131 dik dire\u011fin, \u00e7atallar\u0131 aras\u0131na dengelendirilerek yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f olup, levye (kald\u0131ra\u00e7) ilkesine g\u00f6re i\u015fletilen uzun bir direkle kovan\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli g\u00fcc\u00fcn azalt\u0131lmas\u0131yla,(41)<\/sup> suyu \u0131rmak d\u00fczeyinden bank d\u00fczeyine dek \u00e7ekmek zorundayd\u0131.(42)<\/sup><\/p>\n

M\u00d6 100\u2019den sonra, art\u0131k Yunanl\u0131 krallarca y\u00f6netilen M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da sulama makineleri kuruldu.(43)<\/sup> Bunlar olas\u0131l\u0131kla, bug\u00fcn bile Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019da, Hindistan\u2019da genel kullan\u0131m g\u00f6ren Pers Dolab\u0131\u2019n\u0131n (\u0130ng. Persian Wheel<\/em>) dayand\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilkeye g\u00f6re \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu d\u00fczenekte, bir bu\u011fday [un] de\u011firmeninde kullan\u0131lan e\u015fek gibi, ayn\u0131 \u00e7ember y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinde d\u00f6n\u00fcp duran bir \u00f6k\u00fcz g\u00fcc\u00fcyle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan \u00e7arklar bulunuyordu. \u00d6k\u00fcz, alt ucunda bulunan (su \u00e7ark\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi) yatay eksenli geni\u015f bir \u00e7ark\u0131n di\u015flileriyle kenetlenen bir dikey dingilin d\u00f6nmesini sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. Dingille birlikte ama dikey d\u00fczlem i\u00e7inde d\u00f6nen b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7ark\u0131n \u00fczerine \u00e7ep\u00e7evre k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kovalar [ma\u015frapalar] yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

\u00c7arka daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir y\u00fckseklik kazand\u0131rmak i\u00e7in, \u00e7ark\u0131n \u00e7evresine tutturulmu\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kovalar yerine, uzun bir demir zincire ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f kovac\u0131klar konmu\u015f olabilir. Romal\u0131 yazar Vitrivius b\u00f6yle bir makineyi betimlemektedir.<\/p>\n

Bir madenin dar galerilerinde, bir \u00f6k\u00fcz\u00fcn d\u00f6n\u00fcp duraca\u011f\u0131 \u00e7embere yetecek kadar geni\u015f yer bulunmaz. Su \u00e7arklar\u0131, bir manivelay\u0131 ya da bir ayak de\u011firmenini \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran k\u00f6lelerce d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Roma zaman\u0131ndan kalma bir \u0130spanya madeninde, 14 ayak [4 m. kadar] \u00e7apl\u0131 iki \u00e7ift \u00e7ark tak\u0131m\u0131, d\u00fczene\u011fe farkl\u0131 d\u00fczeylere yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f olup, suyu toplam 10 ayak 6 in\u00e7 [3 m. kadar] y\u00fckse\u011fe \u00e7\u0131karma g\u00fcc\u00fc kazand\u0131rmaktayd\u0131. Bir ba\u015fka madende, suyun en az 150 ayak [40 metreden fazla] y\u00fcksekli\u011fe \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131labilmesi i\u00e7in, en az 14 \u00e7ark gerekmi\u015fti. Madende gece g\u00fcnd\u00fcz \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in 28 k\u00f6le gerekiyordu.<\/p>\n

Burada bir ba\u015fka d\u00fczenek olan burgu (Arkhimedes taraf\u0131ndan M\u00d6 300 dolaylar\u0131nda icat edildi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenen, Fransa\u2019da ve \u00c7in\u2019de h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131lan su burgusu)(44)<\/sup> (\u0130ng. screw<\/em>) suyu 11 ayak [3 m. kadar] y\u00fcksekli\u011fe ta\u015f\u0131yabiliyordu. Bu her iki d\u00fczenek t\u00fcr\u00fc [su \u00e7ark\u0131 ve su burgusu] pompalara g\u00f6re \u00e7ok daha az etkiliydiler. Olduk\u00e7a i\u015fe yarar bir su pompas\u0131n\u0131n, M\u00d6 300 kadar olduk\u00e7a erken bir tarihte icat edildi\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor. Ancak eski\u00e7a\u011fda herhangi bir madendeki suyu \u00e7ekmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcnm\u00fcyor. Bu ama\u00e7la kullan\u0131m\u0131na ancak \u201cKaranl\u0131k \u00c7a\u011flar\u201d denen d\u00f6nemde, MS 500-1500 aras\u0131nda ge\u00e7ilmi\u015ftir. Yeri gelmi\u015fken, burgu ilkesinin, ayn\u0131 zamanda preslerde, \u00f6zellikle ya\u011f \u00e7\u0131karma preslerinde, \u00e7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131zdaki kullan\u0131m bi\u00e7imine olduk\u00e7a yak\u0131n bir anlay\u0131\u015fla kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtmeliyim. Elbette o zaman burgular\u0131, bir torna tezgah\u0131nda tahtadan bi\u00e7imlendirilmi\u015f t\u00fcrdendi. Burgu (vida) ilkesi, Orta \u00c7a\u011flar\u2019a(45)<\/sup> dek bir \u015feyleri birbirine tutturmaya yarayan pimlere (vidalara) uygulanmad\u0131. Ancak biz\u2019lerin delgi\u2019lerin u\u00e7lar\u0131na, biriken tala\u015f\u0131n deli\u011fi doldurup kapatmas\u0131n\u0131 [b\u00f6ylece delme i\u015finin g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015fip a\u011f\u0131rla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131] engellemek i\u00e7in, vida bi\u00e7imi verilmi\u015f olabilir.<\/p>\n

Bununla birlikte, Yunan ve Roma mekanik\u00e7ileri, \u00f6nce kilitler, sonra su ile \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan saatler ve benzeri k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck d\u00fczenekler i\u00e7in incelikle yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f metal di\u015fli ara\u00e7lar, diskli \u00e7arklar, b\u00fcy\u00fck di\u015fli – k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck di\u015fli [birbirine ge\u00e7mi\u015f] \u201cdi\u015fli tak\u0131mlar\u0131\u201d (\u0130ng. rachet-and-pinions<\/em>) vb. yapabilecek yetenekteydiler.<\/p>\n

Feodal d\u00f6nem ve sonras\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Avrupa\u2019da, Roma k\u00f6le ekonomisi, i\u00e7 \u00e7eli\u015fki \u00e7izgileri boyunca k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p \u00e7\u00f6kt\u00fc. Roma uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, barbar istilac\u0131larca, MS 400 dolaylar\u0131nda devrildi. Do\u011fu\u2019da Byzantium (\u0130stanbul) i\u00e7inde ve daha sonra, Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019n\u0131n, Kuzey Afrika\u2019n\u0131n ve \u0130spanya\u2019n\u0131n Arap kentlerinde t\u00fcm klasik [\u00e7a\u011f] teknik ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7leri korundu. Hatta yeni ara\u00e7lar\u0131n (\u00f6rne\u011fin makaslar\u0131n) ve makinelerin (\u00f6rne\u011fin yelde\u011firmenlerinin) eklenmesiyle daha da vars\u0131lla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Avrupa\u2019da bile zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar, ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 k\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015flerse de, varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, teknik becerilerini ve ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 sonraki ku\u015faklara ge\u00e7irebilecek kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebildiler. Sonraki tarihlerde iyice g\u00fc\u00e7ten d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f imparatorlu\u011fun \u0130talya\u2019daki topraklar\u0131na dek Avrupa\u2019daki illeri (eyaletleri) boyunca yay\u0131lan (Anglo-Saksonlar gibi) T\u00f6ton kabileleri, en sonunda, o tarihlerde bitkin d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f imparatorlu\u011fun, hammaddelerin ve zanaat \u00fcr\u00fcnlerinin da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f bulunan ticaret d\u00fczeneklerini eklemlerinden \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131lar. \u00d6te yandan, Engels\u2019in (Origins<\/em> 177\u2019de, K\u00f6ken<\/em>, 183\u2019de) g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi gibi, istilac\u0131 T\u00f6tonlar\u0131n barbarl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n ta kendisi ve gentile (kanba\u011f\u0131) ilkesine dayand\u0131r\u0131lan toplumsal yap\u0131lar\u0131, Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 gen\u00e7le\u015ftirecek [derecede ilerici] etkiler yaratt\u0131. Ger\u00e7ekten bu istilac\u0131lar, ilkel kom\u00fcnizmden olduk\u00e7a uzakla\u015fm\u0131\u015f durumda bulunmakla birlikte, toprakta \u00f6zel sahiplik (m\u00fclkiyet) ve tefecilik noktas\u0131na varm\u0131\u015f de\u011fillerdi. Bununla birlikte, Romal\u0131 bi\u00e7imi bir end\u00fcstri [malyap\u0131m\u0131] k\u00f6leli\u011fine de varm\u0131\u015f olmaktan uzakt\u0131lar. Aralar\u0131nda, zanaat\u00e7\u0131lara b\u00fcy\u00fck sayg\u0131 g\u00f6steriliyordu. Vars\u0131l mezarlar\u0131 [\u00f6l\u00fc arma\u011fanlar\u0131yla dolu olanlar] i\u00e7inde, demircilerin ve \u00f6teki metal i\u015fleyicilerinin, yaln\u0131zca t\u00fcm ara\u00e7lar\u0131yla de\u011fil, silahlar\u0131yla birlikte g\u00f6m\u00fcld\u00fckleri \u00f6l\u00fcleri bulunur.<\/p>\n

Ger\u00e7ekten, \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden bu fetih\u00e7iler [fatihler] teritoryal [\u00fclke ilkesine dayand\u0131r\u0131lan] s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 devletler kurup, birli\u011finde \u00e7ift\u00e7ilerin serfli\u011fini getiren feodal d\u00fczene ge\u00e7mek i\u00e7in, topra\u011f\u0131n topluluk\u00e7a ortak sahipli\u011fini b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Ancak, bir\u00e7ok zanaat\u00e7\u0131 \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc [ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131] s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. MS 100\u2019den sonra bir ka\u00e7ak k\u00f6le, bir kasabaya kapa\u011f\u0131 atabilirse ve oraya bir zanaat\u00e7\u0131 olarak yerle\u015febilirse, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kazanabiliyordu. Kentli zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar, loncalar i\u00e7inde bir araya gelerek, devlete, toprak sahibine ve tacire kar\u015f\u0131 ekonomik \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fcklerini bir dereceye dek s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebiliyordu. \u00d6yle ki bu, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 ya da Klasik d\u00f6nem Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z zanaat\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7bir zaman bilmedi\u011fi bir durumdu.<\/p>\n

Pek az yeni el arac\u0131 icat edilmi\u015fti, ama emekten tutum sa\u011flayan makineler vard\u0131. Su dolaplar\u0131, feodal devletlerde, hatta \u0130ngiltere\u2019de bile, MS 700 dolaylar\u0131nda kurulmu\u015f bulunuyordu. MS 1100\u2019den sonra, su g\u00fcc\u00fcnden, hamur makinelerini (\u0130ng. pulping mills<\/em>) 1290\u2019da, maden ergitme ocaklar\u0131n\u0131 1320\u2019de, kereste h\u0131zarlar\u0131n\u0131 1322\u2019de, tel \u00e7ekme (hadde) makinelerini 1400\u2019de ve iplik b\u00fckme gibi \u00f6teki makineleri \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmada yararlan\u0131ld\u0131. T\u00fcm bu makineler, su pompas\u0131 silindirinde oldu\u011fu gibi, daha \u00e7ok tahtadand\u0131. Ama daha hassas ve karma\u015f\u0131k di\u015fliler ve hepsinden \u00f6nemlisi, saat yap\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131nca yap\u0131lan di\u015fli \u00e7arklar\u0131n di\u015fleri ise genellikle demirdendi. Ayn\u0131 zamanda, o tarihlere dek end\u00fcstride yaln\u0131zca d\u00f6vme demir kullan\u0131lmaktayken, su g\u00fcc\u00fcnden [k\u00f6r\u00fcklerle] hava ak\u0131m\u0131 yaratma yolunda yararlan\u0131lmas\u0131, demirin d\u00f6k\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn yap\u0131lmas\u0131 olana\u011f\u0131n\u0131 verdi.<\/p>\n

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Orta\u00e7a\u011f ara\u00e7lar\u0131yla \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Yeni makinelerin \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden dev\u015firilen meyveleri, bir yandan mal yap\u0131m\u0131nda \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131da, yani (i\u00e7inde ara\u00e7lar da bulunan) yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mallar\u0131n tutar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck art\u0131\u015flar oldu. \u00d6te yandan ba\u015fka yararlar\u0131, makinelerin, duvar ve masa saatlerinin ve elbette toplar\u0131n ve \u00f6teki silahlar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131nda ve onar\u0131m\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan yeni el ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n icat edilmesiyle dev\u015firildi. 1500\u2019den \u00f6nce yarat\u0131lan bu yeni ara\u00e7lar aras\u0131nda, somunlar ve c\u0131vatalar yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, onlar\u0131n s\u0131k\u0131lmas\u0131yla ve gev\u015fetilmesiyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 t\u00fcm bir anahtar tak\u0131m\u0131 vard\u0131. Bug\u00fcn kullan\u0131lan bi\u00e7imiyle matkap kolu (\u0130ng. brace<\/em>)(46)<\/sup> da bulunmaktayd\u0131. Aralar\u0131nda yeni delgi t\u00fcrleri (\u00f6rne\u011fin pompalar\u0131n tahta silindirlerini perdahlamakta kullan\u0131lan) [d\u00f6ner z\u0131mpara benzeri] delgi ve torna tezgah\u0131 da bulunuyordu. Ama sivri u\u00e7lu burgulu pimler, \u201cvidalar\u201d (\u0130ng. \u201cscrew nails<\/em>\u201d) 19. y\u00fczy\u0131la dek az kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu tarihe dek tornavidalar ve matkaplar bug\u00fcnk\u00fc kadar \u00f6nemli ara\u00e7lar durumunda de\u011fildi. Makinelerin yap\u0131m\u0131nda, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan ba\u015flayarak, tahtan\u0131n yerini metalin almas\u0131yla, bu yaz\u0131da betimlenemeyecek karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131kta, y\u00fcksek derecede uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f yeni ara\u00e7lar ailesi geli\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Ne var ki makinelerin sonul \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc, zanaat\u00e7\u0131y\u0131 \u00fcretim ara\u00e7lar\u0131ndan yoksun edip, onu bir \u00fccretliye indirmesi oldu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc yapt\u0131klar\u0131 i\u015fle ilgili yeni, pahal\u0131 makinelere, i\u015fi onlar\u0131 kullanmak olan zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar de\u011fil, \u00f6zel ki\u015filer sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131. Ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 tacirler k\u00e2rlar\u0131n\u0131, (Yunan\u2019da ve Roma\u2019da k\u00f6lelere yat\u0131r\u0131\u015flar\u0131! gibi) makinelere yat\u0131rd\u0131lar. B\u00f6ylece end\u00fcstri kapitalistleri durumuna geldiler.<\/p>\n

El ara\u00e7lar\u0131yla \u00fcretilen al\u0131n\u0131p sat\u0131lan mallar, pazarda makine \u00fcr\u00fcnleriyle yar\u0131\u015famay\u0131nca (rekabet edemeyince) s\u00f6z konusu ara\u00e7lar\u0131n kullan\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131, ya makine sahiplerinin dayatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ko\u015fullarla o makineleri kullanarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaktan ya da a\u00e7 kalmaktan birini se\u00e7mekte \u00f6zg\u00fcr b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131lar! Burjuva kapitalizminin olu\u015fma s\u00fcrecinin, Marx taraf\u0131ndan Kapital<\/em> i\u00e7inde a\u00e7\u0131klanan asal \u00f6zelli\u011fi bu olmakla birlikte, asl\u0131nda s\u00fcre\u00e7 bu \u00f6zetin g\u00f6sterebilece\u011finden \u00e7ok daha karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Geride dikkat \u00e7ekilmesi gereken bir nokta kald\u0131. Makinele\u015fme (mekanizasyon) tar\u0131mda, zanaatlarda g\u00f6r\u00fclenden \u00e7ok daha a\u011f\u0131r ilerledi. Ger\u00e7ekten koyunlar, Avustralya\u2019daki kapitalist \u00e7iftliklerde ancak [1940\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar \u00f6ncesi] elli y\u0131ld\u0131r makinelerle k\u0131rp\u0131lmaktalar. Bi\u00e7erd\u00f6verler ve benzeri makineler, Amerika\u2019da ve d\u00fczl\u00fck Britanya\u2019da t\u0131rpanlar\u0131n ve \u00e7apalar\u0131n yerini almakta bundan daha a\u011f\u0131r. \u00c7o\u011fu Avrupal\u0131 k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri ve \u0130sko\u00e7ya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu \u00e7iftlik kiralayan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7ift\u00e7ileri (\u0130ng. crofters<\/em>)(47)<\/sup> olan k\u00f6yl\u00fcler, biny\u0131l \u00f6ncesinin Romal\u0131 \u00e7ift\u00e7ilerinden daha iyi donan\u0131ml\u0131 de\u011filler!<\/p>\n

Ama SSCB\u2019nin kolektif \u00e7iftlikleri \u00fczerinde, [\u00c7arl\u0131\u011f\u0131n] k\u00f6leci toplum[un]da geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f eski ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerin yerine konmu\u015f tar\u0131m makineleri, i\u015flerin g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde azaltt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131y\u0131 [verimlili\u011fi, eme\u011fin verimlili\u011fini] art\u0131rmakta. Ve bu yeni ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerin sahibi, toprakta oldu\u011fu gibi, bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak topluluktur. B\u00f6yle olunca Sovyetler y\u00f6netiminde mekanizasyon, kapitalistin k\u00e2r sa\u011flamas\u0131 i\u00e7in zorlu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmadan kurtulma, i\u015fbirli\u011fi i\u00e7inde g\u00f6sterilen \u00e7abayla ya\u015fam standartlar\u0131n\u0131n herkes i\u00e7in y\u00fckseltilmesi anlam\u0131na gelmektedir.<\/p>\n

\u00c7izimlerin A\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Makaledeki kabataslak \u00e7izimler, yukar\u0131da s\u00f6z\u00fc edilen tarihte g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f s\u0131ralar\u0131na g\u00f6re en \u00f6nemlileri olan, soylar\u0131ndan gelenleri h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131mda bulunan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 canland\u0131rmaktad\u0131r. \u00c7iz.\u00a01\u2019de, ilk standartla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan, ama [belli tek bir i\u015f i\u00e7in] uzmanla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmayan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 paleolitik elbaltas\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmektedir. \u00c7iz. 2 ve \u00c7iz. 3\u2019te orta paleolitik [k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn] \u201cerke\u011fin\u201d ve \u201ckad\u0131n\u0131n\u201d [farkl\u0131 i\u015fleri i\u00e7in] uzmanla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f b\u0131\u00e7aklar\u0131. \u00c7iz. 2\u2019deki ara\u00e7lardan, yaln\u0131zca saplan\u0131c\u0131 silahlar<\/strong> b\u00fcy\u00fck ailesi de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda \u201ciki y\u00fczl\u00fc\u201d [her iki k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 keskin] ara\u00e7lar \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p gelmi\u015ftir. \u00c7iz. 3\u2019teki, daha \u00e7ok [post vb.] kaz\u0131mak i\u00e7in tasarlanm\u0131\u015fsa da, \u00e7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131z b\u0131\u00e7aklar\u0131n\u0131n yukar\u0131 paleolitik \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 anatas\u0131 [anas\u0131 atas\u0131] say\u0131labilir. \u00c7iz. 4\u2019tekinin s\u0131rt\u0131 yontularak k\u00f6rle\u015ftirilmi\u015fken, \u00c7iz. 5\u2019te bu arac\u0131n, \u00e7ok daha sonra metal \u00e7a\u011flar\u0131nda, metal \u00f6rne\u011fine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fc\u015f\u00fc g\u00f6sterilmektedir.<\/p>\n

En erken g\u00f6r\u00fcnen \u00e7eki\u00e7, yaln\u0131zca, \u00e7\u0131plak elle kavranan yuvarlak bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131 olsa gerektir. Bu t\u00fcr ara\u00e7lar\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da ve \u00f6teki Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 devletlerinde(48)<\/sup> masonlarca [ta\u015f yontucular\u0131nca] hatta yontu [heykel] yap\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131nca kullan\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Ancak, maden cevheri ta\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131r\u0131p [kayal\u0131klardan] \u00e7\u0131karmak ve onlar\u0131 [\u00f6v\u00fctme yolunda] \u00e7eki\u00e7lemek i\u00e7in, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 metal i\u015fleyicileri, \u00e7eki\u00e7 ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131n ortas\u0131na (\u00c7iz. 8\u2019de g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi) \u00e7epe\u00e7evre bir oyuk a\u00e7\u0131p onu bir sap\u0131n ucuna tutturdular. Ama a\u011fa\u00e7 dal\u0131ndan bir sopa, ta paleolitik zamanlarda bile kullan\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Bu sopa Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda ele avuca uygun [bildi\u011fimiz bi\u00e7imiyle] bir \u00e7ekice varacak y\u00f6nde geli\u015ftirildi. Ya da bir a\u011fac\u0131n uygun bir dal\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerde olu\u015fan \u00e7atal\u0131n\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc veya bir geyikboynuzunun \u00e7atal\u0131 al\u0131n\u0131p, b\u00f6ylece kendinden kazan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir sap\u0131 bulunan bir \u00e7eki\u00e7 olu\u015fturulacakt\u0131. Daha sonra, Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda sap, \u00e7eki\u00e7 ba\u015f\u0131ndan ayr\u0131 yap\u0131l\u0131p, tam da bizim \u00e7eki\u00e7lerimizde oldu\u011fu gibi, \u00e7eki\u00e7 ba\u015f\u0131nda a\u00e7\u0131lan deli\u011fe uydurulup tak\u0131ld\u0131 (bak. \u00c7iz. 6). Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 sona ermeden \u00e7ekicin tahta ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131n tun\u00e7 kopyas\u0131, a\u011f\u0131r i\u015flerin \u00fcstesinden gelinmesi i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f (bak. \u00c7iz. 7) bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n

Yukar\u0131 paleolitik zamanlarda insanlar, odunlar\u0131 yarmak i\u00e7in, tahta \u201ckama\u201dlar [b\u0131\u00e7ak benzeri de\u011fil takoz benzeri ara\u00e7lar] ya da fildi\u015finden veya geyikboynuzundan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f keski kalemleri [\u0130ng. chisels<\/em>] kulland\u0131lar. Di\u011fer kama bi\u00e7imli u\u00e7 (\u0130ng. wedge<\/em>), geyikboynuzu \u00e7atal\u0131n\u0131n bir ucunun e\u011fik kesilip al\u0131nmas\u0131yla olu\u015fturulabilirdi. Ama geyikboynuzunun o b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u00f6yle kesildikten sonra \u00e7atal\u0131ndan al\u0131nmay\u0131p orada b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015fsa, kama \u00e7eki\u00e7lendikten sonra bir levye (kald\u0131ra\u00e7) olarak da kullan\u0131labilirdi (bak. \u00c7iz. 11). \u00c7atal\u0131n e\u011fik kesilmi\u015f ucunun yerine (bak. \u00c7iz. 14\u2019te g\u00f6sterilen) bir \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 b\u0131\u00e7ak [ba\u015f\u0131] yani cilalanarak keskinle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7atal\u0131n ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 dal\u0131n ucuna soku\u015fturulmu\u015f bi\u00e7imi (bak. \u00c7iz. 12\u2019deki gibi) konmu\u015f olabilirdi. Yontma ama\u00e7l\u0131 bir baltan\u0131n do\u011fu\u015funun [izlenmi\u015f] yollar\u0131ndan biri bu olabilir. Daha sonra, ta\u015f balta ba\u015f\u0131 ya bir geyikboynuzunun delik a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden yararlan\u0131larak \u00e7atal geyikboynuzu par\u00e7as\u0131na, ya da do\u011frudan do\u011fruya bir d\u00fczg\u00fcn tahta sopaya tutturulabilir (bak. \u00c7iz. 13) veya ta\u015f balta ba\u015f\u0131, dirsekli bir sopan\u0131n yar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ucuna soku\u015fturularak (bak. \u00c7iz. 17) tak\u0131labilirdi. Bak\u0131r ya da tun\u00e7 baltalara \u00f6nceleri, ge\u00e7mi\u015fin ta\u015f baltalar\u0131n\u0131n yak\u0131n kopyalar\u0131 olan bi\u00e7imler verildi. Bir farkla ki, her iki \u00f6rnekte, b\u0131\u00e7a\u011fa daha kesici bir k\u0131y\u0131 kazand\u0131rmak \u00fczere, d\u0131\u015fa do\u011fru az \u00e7ok bir e\u011fim kazand\u0131r\u0131lmaktayd\u0131 (bak. \u00c7iz. 15). Bu d\u0131\u015fa [yelpaze gibi a\u00e7\u0131lan] e\u011fimlilik durumu \u00f6nceleri, d\u00f6k\u00fcm balta ba\u015flar\u0131nda keskin bir k\u0131y\u0131 olu\u015fturmak amac\u0131yla \u00e7eki\u00e7lemenin [metalin yanlara do\u011fru yay\u0131lmas\u0131na varan] sonucu olarak do\u011fmu\u015f bulunabilir. Ama daha sonra kal\u0131b\u0131na, bilin\u00e7li olarak bu bi\u00e7im verilerek d\u0131\u015fa yay\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n abart\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor. Bunlara, ta\u015f balta ba\u015flar\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi, d\u00fcz bir sap tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Avrupa\u2019da dirsekli sap (bak. \u00c7iz. 17) her zaman ye\u011flendi. Bu bi\u00e7imin kullan\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131, sonunda \u201cdelikli balta ba\u015flar\u0131\u201d (\u0130ng. socketed celt<\/em>) (bak. \u00c7iz. 16) denen arac\u0131n, M\u00d6 1200 dolaylar\u0131nda bulunu\u015funa vard\u0131. Bu balta ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131n boru bi\u00e7imli d\u00f6k\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f bir deli\u011fi olup, \u00e7atall\u0131 sopan\u0131n bir kolu buraya sokulmaktayd\u0131. Ayn\u0131 sap ge\u00e7irme y\u00f6ntemi tun\u00e7tan yap\u0131lan oluk a\u011f\u0131zl\u0131 do\u011framac\u0131 kalemlerinin (bak. \u00c7iz. 25) tun\u00e7 keskilerin (bak. \u00c7iz. 28) yap\u0131m\u0131nda da kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Hatta kullan\u0131m\u0131, Alpler\u2019in kuzeyinde demir baltalarda M\u00d6 400\u2019e kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Ama Macaristan\u2019da, Yunanistan\u2019da ve Yak\u0131n Asya\u2019da, M\u00d6 300\u2019den ba\u015flayarak, bak\u0131r ve tun\u00e7 baltalarda, balta ba\u015flar\u0131na, \u00e7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131zdakilerde oldu\u011fu gibi bir sap deli\u011fi kondu. \u00c7izim 18\u2019de g\u00f6sterilen benzeri yal\u0131n (basit) baltalar yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, \u00f6zellikle Yunanistan\u2019da ve Girit\u2019te olmak \u00fczere, \u00e7ift y\u00fczl\u00fc baltalar ve balta-kazma kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 ara\u00e7lar (bak. \u00c7iz. 20) yap\u0131ld\u0131. T\u00fcm bu bi\u00e7imler, M\u00d6 100\u2019den sonra demirden \u00e7e\u015fitleriyle yeniden \u00fcretilmi\u015f ve zamanla yava\u015f yava\u015f deliksiz bi\u00e7imlerinin yerini alm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131. Bu yolda bir sonraki en \u00f6nemli geli\u015fme, Romal\u0131 ormanc\u0131 baltas\u0131nda (bak. \u00c7iz. 19) g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi, baltan\u0131n keskin k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n geni\u015fletilmesi oldu.<\/p>\n

Keser ba\u015flar\u0131na balta ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131nkine benzer bi\u00e7imler verilmi\u015f olabilir. Ama \u00e7o\u011funlukla (\u00c7iz. 22\u2019deki \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011findeki gibi) simetrik de\u011fildiler ve (\u00c7iz. 21\u2019deki neolitik Bohemya \u00f6rne\u011findeki gibi) dirsekli bir sapa tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131lar. Tun\u00e7 \u00f6rneklerinde ve daha s\u0131k olarak da demir \u00f6rneklerinde sap tak\u0131lacak delik, delikli balta ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fclkelerde balta ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n enli b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Keski kalemleri, tam da daha eskinin ta\u015f ve tun\u00e7 balta ba\u015flar\u0131na benzer; ama onlardan daha dard\u0131r (bak. \u00c7iz. 23 ta\u015f, \u00c7iz. 26 tun\u00e7 olan\u0131). Bunlar, Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde ma\u015falarda oldu\u011fu gibi, \u00e7\u0131plak elle tutularak kullan\u0131lan, ayr\u0131ca sap\u0131 bulunmayan ara\u00e7lar olabilirler. Ya da bir boynuzun tepesine (bak. \u00c7iz. 23) yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bulunabilirler. Veya g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdekiler gibi tahta sopa tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f da olabilirler. Sapa tak\u0131lmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in ge\u00e7 Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 keskilerinin (bak. \u00c7iz. 27) ve Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 keskilerinin, sapa sokulacak b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne, giderek daralan bir uzant\u0131 kazand\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Oluk a\u011f\u0131zl\u0131 [tahta i\u015fleme do\u011framac\u0131 arac\u0131] kalemler, mezolitik kemik \u00f6rnekleriyle ba\u015flat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olup, neolitikte ta\u015ftan yap\u0131ld\u0131lar (bak. \u00c7iz. 24) ve Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f bir bi\u00e7im verildi (bak. \u00c7iz. 30 Mezopotamya, \u00c7iz. 25 \u0130rlanda \u00f6rnekleri).<\/p>\n

\u0130\u011fneler ve biz\u2019ler, yukar\u0131 paleolitik kemik \u00f6rneklerinin bi\u00e7imlerini bug\u00fcn bile s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmekteler. Delici ara\u00e7lar, yukar\u0131 paleolitik \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 biz\u2019ler ile (bak. \u00c7iz. 29) kemikte delik a\u00e7mak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Bir yay delgi arac\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7oma\u011f\u0131na tak\u0131larak (bak. \u00c7iz. 31) delik a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 matkap u\u00e7lar\u0131 durumuna geldiler. Metalin ucuna (\u00c7iz. 30\u2019daki gibi) d\u00f6rt k\u00f6\u015fe bi\u00e7imi verildi\u011finde, delik a\u00e7mak kadar oluk a\u011f\u0131zl\u0131 tahta i\u015fleme kalemleri olarak kullan\u0131labilme olana\u011f\u0131 sundular. Torna u\u00e7lar\u0131 ve rimerler (\u0130ng. centre bits and rymers<\/em>) ilk olarak Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda, M\u00d6 700 dolaylar\u0131nda kullan\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Delerken olu\u015fan [delginin s\u0131k\u0131\u015fmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7an] tala\u015ftan, molozdan kurtulmak i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirilen sarmal oluklu vida ucu (\u0130ng. screw tread<\/em>) M\u00d6 400\u2019den \u00f6nce hi\u00e7bir zaman [\u00e7ivi gibi] sivri u\u00e7lara uygulanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Matkap (\u0130ng. brace<\/em>) Orta \u00c7a\u011f\u2019a dek yay delginin yerini alamad\u0131. Ama M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 ta\u015f yontucular\u0131, M\u00d6 2500\u2019den sonra, torna i\u015fleminde yukar\u0131dan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131ya a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k yaratmak i\u00e7in, sol elle tutulan ta\u015flarla a\u011f\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir dirsekli sap\u0131 olan delgi milini (bak. \u00c7iz. 32) kullanmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Bizimkiler gibi T sapl\u0131 burgular (tirbu\u015fonlar) Roma d\u00f6neminde bazen kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Testere di\u015fli (\u00c7iz. 33\u2019teki gibi) \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 ara\u00e7lar, yukar\u0131 paleolitik avc\u0131larca kemi\u011fi keserek b\u00f6lmede kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Daha sonra do\u011framac\u0131lar\u0131n testeresi olarak i\u015f g\u00f6rebilecek kadar uzun b\u0131\u00e7akl\u0131 [tahta sapl\u0131] testerelerin yap\u0131lmas\u0131na metal\u00fcrjinin ke\u015ffine dek olanak yoktu. Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 testerelerinin hepsi (\u00c7iz. 34\u2019te g\u00f6sterilenle) ayn\u0131 tipteydi ve di\u015fleri ayn\u0131 y\u00f6nde de\u011fildi. \u00c7ift sapl\u0131 [enli, uzun] h\u0131zarc\u0131 testereleri (\u0130ng. cross-cut saws<\/em>) Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n erken d\u00f6nemlerinde M\u00d6 500\u2019den \u00f6nce icat edilmi\u015fti. Di\u015fleri h\u00e2l\u00e2 ayn\u0131 d\u00fczlem boyunca a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmakla birlikte,(49)<\/sup> genellikle e\u011fikti. Tun\u00e7 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda odun saplara keser ba\u015flar\u0131 tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015fsa da, planya (bak. \u00c7iz. 36) MS 50\u2019de icat edildi.<\/p>\n

Toprak par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcr\u00fcp i\u015flemek i\u00e7in ve topra\u011f\u0131 kazmak i\u00e7in d\u00fcz bir sopa, rengeyi\u011fi boynuzunun \u00e7atall\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc (bak. \u00c7iz. 37) ya da dirsekli (kancal\u0131) bir sopa \u00fczerine \u00c7iz. 21\u2019deki gibi ba\u011flan\u0131p tutturulmu\u015f olabilecek ara\u00e7, neolitik k\u00f6yl\u00fclerce kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Hatta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 \u00e7ift\u00e7ileri (\u00c7iz. 38\u2019deki gibi) tahta \u00e7apalar\u0131 topra\u011f\u0131 i\u015flemekte kullanmaktayd\u0131lar. Ama Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ba\u015flamas\u0131ndan sonra Filistin\u2019de \u00e7apalara metal ba\u015fl\u0131klar tak\u0131ld\u0131 (bak. \u00c7iz. 39 ve 40). \u00c7izim 41 ve 42\u2019de g\u00f6sterilenler Roma toprak kazma [k\u00fcrek] ara\u00e7lar\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7izim 44, Almanya\u2019da bir bitki art\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7\u00fcr\u00fcmesi \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc batakl\u0131ktan [\u0130ng. peat bog<\/em>] \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan, saban\u0131n, ba\u015fka yerde kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lmad\u0131k derecede hantal t\u00fcr\u00fcyd\u00fc. Ama t\u00fcm Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 sabanlar\u0131, yaln\u0131zca tahtadan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmalar\u0131 [tahtadan ba\u015fka gere\u00e7 kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmamas\u0131] noktas\u0131nda birle\u015firler. Sabanlara ancak Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda metal (\u00c7iz. 45\u2019deki gibi) saban demiri ge\u00e7irildi.<\/p>\n

Neolitik \u00c7a\u011f ve Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 oraklar\u0131 genellikle (\u00c7iz. 48\u2019de g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi) \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131 testere di\u015fler kak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olarak yap\u0131ld\u0131. Ge\u00e7 Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde bazen bunlar\u0131n metal kopyalar\u0131 \u00fcretildi (bak. \u00c7iz. 49). Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019nda oraklar (Filistin\u2019dekiler gibi) d\u00fczenli olarak metalden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00c7izim 50 Roma ora\u011f\u0131n\u0131 (\u0130ng. sickle<\/em>) ve 51 Roma kal\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 (\u0130ng. scythe<\/em>: kal\u0131\u00e7, k\u00f6r orak) g\u00f6steriyor. \u00c7izim 52\u2019de ise Roma gaga b\u0131\u00e7akl\u0131 tara (\u0130ng. billhook<\/em>) arac\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmekte. \u00c7izim 53\u2019te Avrupa\u2019da bulunan, M\u00d6 250 dolaylar\u0131ndan kalma makas g\u00f6sterilirken; \u00c7izim 54\u2019deki Roma makas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7izim 55, erken Demir \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 ma\u015fas\u0131n\u0131 canland\u0131rmaktad\u0131r. \u00c7izim 57\u2019deki \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck tun\u00e7 \u00f6rs, ince metal i\u015fleyicili\u011fi i\u00e7in olup, Britanya Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. \u00c7izim 58 \u00e7ivi\/m\u0131h yapmada kullan\u0131lan bir \u00f6rs ve \u00c7izim 59, Roma Fransa\u2019s\u0131nda ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131r orak bileyici \u00f6rs\u00fc [?](50)<\/sup> (\u0130ng. mower\u2019s anvil<\/em>) 60 ve 61 Roma malalar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) Bu ve \u00e7eviri boyunca kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lacak \u00f6teki k\u00f6\u015feli ayra\u00e7lar \u00e7evirenindir (y.n.).<\/p>\n

2) Eski Yunan\u2019\u0131n a\u015fk\u0131n\u00f6znesi \u015eafak Tanr\u0131\u00e7a Eos\u2019un ad\u0131na, lithos<\/em> (ta\u015f) s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn eklenmesiyle olu\u015fturulmu\u015f bir arkeoloji kavram\u0131 olup, ilk insan topluluklar\u0131nca kullan\u0131lan kendili\u011finden bi\u00e7imlenmi\u015f ta\u015flar m\u0131 yoksa insanlarca yap\u0131lan ilk ara\u00e7lar m\u0131 olduklar\u0131na kolay kolay karar verilemeyecek denli ilkel (Afrika\u2019da Kenya\u2019n\u0131n Olduvai kara bo\u011faz\u0131 vadisinden, Pekin yak\u0131nlar\u0131ndaki \u00c7okutiyen ma\u011faras\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lanlar ve benzeri) ara\u00e7lar toplulu\u011funa verilen ad idi. Arkeolojide bu kavram\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131ndan vazge\u00e7ilmi\u015f olup, s\u00f6z konusu buluntular Paleolitik k\u00fclt\u00fcr i\u00e7inde say\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

3) Bilimsel yaz\u0131nda, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u201cilkel topluluk\u201d (yal\u0131n yap\u0131l\u0131 topluluk) d\u00f6neminin, daha \u00fcretime bile ge\u00e7ilmedi\u011fi avc\u0131l\u0131k, toplay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ya da bal\u0131k\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla asalak ge\u00e7im bi\u00e7iminin s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ilk evresine \u201cyaban\u0131ll\u0131k\u201d; \u00fcretime (bitkisel ve hayvansal besin \u00fcretimine) ge\u00e7ilmi\u015f (ama daha kentli uygar ya\u015fama ge\u00e7ilmemi\u015f) evresine \u201cbarbarl\u0131k\u201d denmektedir. \u201cUygarl\u0131k\u201d bu ilkel topluluk evrelerini izleyip s\u0131n\u0131fs\u0131z toplumdan s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131, devletli, kentli topluma ge\u00e7i\u015ften g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar uzanan d\u00f6neme verilen add\u0131r (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

4) \u201cCilal\u0131ta\u015f\u201d da denen \u201cYenita\u015f \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u201d, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n, baz\u0131lar\u0131 cilalanarak daha keskinle\u015ftirilmi\u015f ta\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131, ama ona ba\u011flanan katmanlarda daha metal ara\u00e7larla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131; ge\u00e7im etkinliklerinde, daha \u00e7ok tah\u0131llar olmak \u00fczere bitkilerin ekilip bi\u00e7ilip, yiyecek sa\u011flanan hayvanlar\u0131n yeti\u015ftirildi\u011fi k\u00fclt\u00fcr d\u00f6nemi.<\/p>\n

5) \u201cA\u015fa\u011f\u0131 barbarl\u0131k\u201d, Henry Lewis Morgan\u2019\u0131n Eski Toplum<\/em> (\u00c7ev. \u00dcnsal Oskay, \u0130stanbul, 1994, Payel Yay\u0131nlar\u0131) \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda sundu\u011fu, Friedrich Engels\u2019in Ailenin \u00d6zel M\u00fclkiyetin ve Devletin K\u00f6keni<\/em> (\u00e7ev. Kenan Somer, Ankara, 2012, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s.29-34\u2019te) benimsedi\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rman\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bu s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmada, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n, ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan ate\u015fin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131na kadarki evresi \u201cA\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Yaban\u0131ll\u0131k\u201d; oradan okun yay\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131na kadarki \u201cOrta Yaban\u0131ll\u0131k\u201d; sonra \u00e7\u00f6mlek yap\u0131m\u0131na dek ge\u00e7en s\u00fcre k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc \u201cY\u00fcksek Yaban\u0131ll\u0131k\u201d olarak nitelenmektedir. Onu \u201cBarbarl\u0131k\u201d evrelerinin izledi\u011fi kabul edilmektedir: S\u00f6z konusu evreler, \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7ilikten hayvanc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa, tar\u0131ma uzanan evre \u201cA\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Barbarl\u0131k\u201d; oradan demir ara\u00e7lara \u201cOrta Barbarl\u0131k\u201d, demir ara\u00e7lardan okuryazarl\u0131\u011fa \u201cYukar\u0131 Barbarl\u0131k\u201d olarak nitelenmektedir. Bunlar\u0131, alfabe\u2019nin kullan\u0131m\u0131ndan g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze dek \u201cUygarl\u0131k\u201d evresinin izledi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc benimsenmektedir.<\/p>\n

6) \u0130ngilizcesinde \u201clater … races<\/em>\u201d (sonraki … \u0131rklar) bi\u00e7iminde; o tarihlerde genel olarak insan cinsinden ve onun t\u00fcrlerinden, g\u00fcnl\u00fck dilde \u201cinsan \u0131rk\u0131\u201d olarak s\u00f6z edilebiliyordu. Nazilerden sonra onlar\u0131n \u0131rk\u2019a verdikleri dar ve \u00f6zel, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 anlama tepkiyle olsa gerek, \u0131rk s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn bu kullan\u0131m\u0131 b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

7) S\u00f6z konusu \u00e7izimler, makale i\u00e7inde g\u00f6sterilmi\u015f bulunmaktad\u0131r: \u00e7evirmen, \u201cbak\u0131n\u0131z\u201d\u0131n k\u0131salt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imi \u201cbkz\u201d yerine \u201cbak.\u201d bi\u00e7imini; \u201c\u015eekil\u201d i\u00e7in \u201c\u00c7izim\u201d s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn \u201c\u00c7iz. \u201d k\u0131salt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imini ye\u011flemektedir (Yay\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131n notu=y.n.).<\/p>\n

8) Yazar burada ve buna benzer bir\u00e7ok durumda \u201ctoplum\u201d (\u0130ng. society<\/em>) s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kullanm\u0131\u015f olmakla birlikte, kimi yazarlarca y\u00fcz y\u00fcze ili\u015fkiler i\u00e7inde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck insan pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131na uygun bilimsel kavram olarak, T\u00f6nnies\u2019in Gemeinschaft und Gesselschaft,<\/em> (1887) (topluluk ve toplum; cemaat ile cemiyet) ayr\u0131m\u0131na dikkati \u00e7eken yap\u0131t\u0131ndan beri \u201ctopluluk\u201d kavram\u0131 daha uygun g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

9) \u0130ng. \u201cflakes<\/em>\u201d; arkeolojide \u201cyongalar\u201d anlam\u0131na gelen s\u00f6zc\u00fckle, paralele yak\u0131n d\u00fczeyleri olup, bir ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131ndan birka\u00e7 vuru\u015fta yongalar kopar\u0131l\u0131p, onlar\u0131n neredeyse o durumlar\u0131yla kullan\u0131lan, par\u00e7alar\u0131na verilen T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\u2019de \u201cyongata\u015flar\u201d olarak kar\u015f\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131m ara\u00e7lar\u0131n ad\u0131d\u0131r. Yongata\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, \u201c\u00e7ekirdek\u201d (\u0130ngilizce\u2019de core<\/em>) denen, bi\u00e7imsiz ta\u015f par\u00e7as\u0131ndan bi\u00e7im verme yolunda yongalar kopar\u0131ld\u0131ktan sonra geride kalan (\u201c\u00e7ekirdek\u201d denen) ana par\u00e7a olup \u201c\u00e7ekirdekta\u015flar\u201d, \u00e7ekirdekta\u015f ara\u00e7lar olarak \u00e7evrilmeleri uygun d\u00fc\u015fen ara\u00e7lar tak\u0131m\u0131 bulunmaktad\u0131r; hi\u00e7 de\u011filse ben onlar i\u00e7in bu kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 kullan\u0131yorum (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

10) SSCB\u2019nin \u00f6nde gelen Marks\u00e7\u0131 prehistoryac\u0131s\u0131. \u00c7evirenin ve yay\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131n oldu\u011fu belirtilmeyen b\u00f6yle notlar yazar\u0131nd\u0131r (y.n.).<\/p>\n

11) \u00c7evirmen \u0130ngilizcede k\u0131salt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imi cf<\/em> olarak verilen \u201ckar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u201d deyi\u015finin T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede k\u0131salt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f\u0131 olarak kullan\u0131lan \u201ckr\u015f\u201d yerine \u201ckar.\u201d bi\u00e7imini ye\u011flemektedir (y.n.).<\/p>\n

12) Engels\u2019in \u00fcnl\u00fc yap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n \u0130ngilizce bask\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ad\u0131ndaki Origins<\/em> s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcyle k\u0131salt\u0131larak yap\u0131lan g\u00f6ndermelerin sayfalar\u0131, \u201cOrigins, 180<\/em>\u201d \u00f6rne\u011fi bi\u00e7iminde; T\u00fcrk\u00e7e \u00e7evirideki yerleri ise \u201cK\u00f6ken, 186<\/em>\u201d \u00f6rne\u011findeki gibi verilecektir. S\u00f6z konusu \u00e7eviri, Friedrich Engels, Ailenin \u00d6zel M\u00fclkiyetin ve Devletin K\u00f6keni, <\/em>\u00e7ev. Kenan Somer, Ankara, 2012, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131 olup, sayfa say\u0131lar\u0131nda bu T\u00fcrk\u00e7e \u00e7eviri izlenmi\u015ftir (y.n.).<\/p>\n

13) Grav\u00fcr i\u015fleri i\u00e7in \u00e7akmakta\u015f\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, ince ama sa\u011flam k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 bulunan, kullan\u0131\u015fl\u0131 bir ara\u00e7.<\/p>\n

14) Sivri olmayan ucunda parmaklarla ya da avu\u00e7 i\u00e7iyle bask\u0131 uygulanarak delicili\u011fi g\u00fc\u00e7lendirilen bir t\u00fcr kal\u0131n i\u011fnelere T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede \u201cbiz\u201d (\u0130ng. awl) <\/em>denmektedir; \u201cbiz\u201d ile kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmamas\u0131 i\u00e7in \u201cb\u0131z\u201d denmesi de \u00f6nerilmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

15) M\u0131zrak f\u0131rlat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, m\u0131zra\u011f\u0131n savrulma yay\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ap\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fckseltecek bir ara\u00e7 olup, m\u0131zra\u011f\u0131n dibi \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131na dayand\u0131ktan sonra ortas\u0131ndan tutularak savrulan \u201c \u201d bi\u00e7imli bir d\u00fczenektir. Hedefi bulma \u015fans\u0131, m\u0131zra\u011f\u0131n kavranarak f\u0131rlat\u0131lmas\u0131nda hedefi tutturma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 kadar y\u00fcksek olmasa gerektir. Ama hedefin yakla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 kolay olmayan otlayan tehlikeli hayvanlar s\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fc ya da ka\u00e7an tehlikesizler s\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fc olaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcrse, nokta at\u0131\u015f\u0131 yap\u0131lamasa da onunla f\u0131rlat\u0131lan m\u0131zra\u011f\u0131n, s\u00fcr\u00fcden birine rastlamas\u0131 olas\u0131d\u0131r; yeter ki m\u0131zrak aradaki uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 a\u015fabilecek kadar uza\u011fa f\u0131rlat\u0131labilsin (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

16) Bir t\u00fcr bal\u0131k oltas\u0131 olup, kancal\u0131 olmayan, ortas\u0131ndan olta ipi ge\u00e7irilen bir yer [delik ya da ip sar\u0131lan \u00e7entik bulunan] her iki ucu sivriltilmi\u015f bal\u0131k av\u0131 arac\u0131.<\/p>\n

17) Burada, bu t\u00fcr ara\u00e7larla kazan\u0131lan g\u00fcc\u00fc anlatma yolunda, orman\u0131n \u201csap\u0131 benden (bana ihanet etmi\u015f) olmasayd\u0131, ben o el kadarc\u0131k balta ba\u015f\u0131na boyun e\u011fer miydim?\u201d meselini an\u0131msay\u0131p anlatmamak elde mi? (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

18) Do\u011framac\u0131l\u0131kta [par\u00e7alar\u0131 m\u0131hla, \u00e7iviyle de\u011fil] ge\u00e7me i\u015fi ile birle\u015ftirmede, bir kereste par\u00e7as\u0131na, bir ba\u015fka par\u00e7an\u0131n [\u201cerkek\u201d denen] \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n yerle\u015ftirilerek birle\u015ftirilece\u011fi [\u201cdi\u015fi\u201d denen] girintinin oyulmas\u0131. \u201cZ\u0131vanadan \u00e7\u0131kma\u201d deyi\u015fi b\u00f6yle yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f e\u015fyan\u0131n sallan\u0131p da\u011f\u0131lmas\u0131ndan esinlenilerek t\u00fcretilmi\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

19) 4. nota bak\u0131n\u0131z (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

20) Taneyi kavuzundan [en d\u0131\u015ftaki sert kabu\u011fundan] ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in [d\u00fcvenden ge\u00e7irildikten sonra] kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k samanla taneyi ay\u0131rmada hasad\u0131 savurarak yellendirme i\u015flevi g\u00f6ren ara\u00e7 [yaba].<\/p>\n

21) \u00dcstteki par\u00e7an\u0131n alttaki ta\u015f \u00fczerinde ileri geri s\u00fcrt\u00fclerek, ya da [alttakinin ortas\u0131ndaki kaz\u0131\u011fa ge\u00e7irilmi\u015f bir delik ta\u015f\u0131n d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclmesiyle] \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan ara\u00e7lar.<\/p>\n

22) Dokumac\u0131l\u0131kta, ucuna a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f ya da dokuma tezgah\u0131n\u0131n hareketli alt par\u00e7as\u0131na tutu\u015fturulmu\u015f dikey konumdaki ipliklere \u201c\u00e7\u00f6zg\u00fc\u201d ipleri (\u0130ng. warp threads<\/em>) onlar\u0131n aras\u0131ndan yatay olarak dola\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lanlara \u201catk\u0131\u201d ipleri denmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

23) Ayn\u0131 d\u00fczenek bug\u00fcn baz\u0131 Anadolu kasabalar\u0131nda, uzun sigara t\u00fctt\u00fcrme \u00e7ubu\u011fu (a\u011f\u0131zl\u0131k) gibi objeleri delmede kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

24) M\u0131r\u00e7lar, manivelalara benzeyen, onlardan yaln\u0131zca daha k\u0131sa olmalar\u0131yla ay\u0131rt edilen sivri u\u00e7lu metal \u00e7ubuklard\u0131. Tahta manivelalardan farkl\u0131 olarak metal u\u00e7 tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f (\u00c7iz. 43) ara\u00e7lard\u0131.<\/p>\n

25) \u0130ng. smith<\/em>; \u0130ngilizcede ayr\u0131 metallerin metal\u00fcrji uzmanlar\u0131 i\u00e7in, blacksmith<\/em> (demirci) goldsmith<\/em> (kuyumcu) gibi adlar yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, hepsini i\u00e7eren bir ortak meslek ad\u0131n\u0131n (smith<\/em>) bulunmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede b\u00f6yle bir ad bulunmamaktad\u0131r; en az\u0131ndan ben bilmiyorum; baz\u0131 yerlerde \u201cd\u00f6k\u00fcmc\u00fc\u201d ile kar\u015f\u0131lad\u0131m (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

26) Saban\u0131n toprak keseklerini alt\u00fcst eden e\u011fri plaka bi\u00e7imli par\u00e7as\u0131.<\/p>\n

27) Saban\u0131n kula\u011f\u0131na dikey yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f kesici bir metal par\u00e7as\u0131 [T\u00fcr\u00e7e\u2019de \u201csaban demiri\u201d denen par\u00e7a olmal\u0131- \u00e7.n.].<\/p>\n

28) Yirminci y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n yar\u0131s\u0131ndan sonraki ony\u0131llarda, \u0130ngilizcedeki war-chariot <\/em>ad\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131salt\u0131lmas\u0131yla, sonraki ony\u0131llarda chariot <\/em>s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc iki tekerlekli ara\u00e7 i\u00e7in de\u011fil, sava\u015f arabas\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131r olacakt\u0131 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

29) Hitit kay\u0131tlar\u0131na g\u00f6re, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Anadolu s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde \u201cKizvadna\u201d denen kesin yeri saptanamayan (Toroslar\u2019da ya da Do\u011fu Karadeniz da\u011flar\u0131nda oldu\u011fu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclen) da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgede (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

30) K\u00f6r oraklar; \u00e7orak yerlerdeki k\u0131sa sapl\u0131 ekinlerin dev\u015firilmesinde kullan\u0131lan, ba\u015faklar\u0131ndan tutulan bir tutam ekinin ora\u011f\u0131n k\u00f6r y\u00fcz\u00fcyle \u00e7ekilerek k\u00f6klerinden s\u00f6k\u00fcld\u00fckten sonra, tersiyle k\u00f6klerine vurularak topraklar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00f6k\u00fclmesine yarayan ara\u00e7 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

31) \u0130ng. mattock<\/em>, her iki ucu sivri kazmalardan farkl\u0131 olarak, topra\u011f\u0131 \u00e7apalay\u0131p gev\u015fetmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan bir ucu yass\u0131 ara\u00e7lar.<\/p>\n

32) Bak. n.26 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

33) Marangozlar\u0131n tahtaya delik a\u00e7mada kulland\u0131klar\u0131 ( bi\u00e7imli) d\u00f6ner ara\u00e7.<\/p>\n

34) Yazar, bu yaz\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 yirminci y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda da s\u00fcren bir gelenekle, \u201cdevlet\u201d (\u0130ng. State<\/em>) s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, her kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerde b\u00fcy\u00fck harfle ba\u015flatmakta (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

35) Bak. n.9 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

36) Bak. n.4 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

37) Bir kap\u0131 ge\u00e7iti \u00fczerine koymak ya da iki dik [s\u00fctun, duvar gibi] yap\u0131 aras\u0131 bo\u015flu\u011fu birle\u015ftirip kapatmak i\u00e7in yatay yerle\u015ftirilen kalas ya da ta\u015f blo\u011fu [s\u00f6ve ta\u015f\u0131].<\/p>\n

38) Ayak de\u011firmeni, insan g\u00fcc\u00fcyle d\u00f6ner devinim yaratmak i\u00e7in, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar\u0131n a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n, bir d\u00f6ner silindir \u00fczerine yatay yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f kalaslara basmalar\u0131yla d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcc\u00fc g\u00fcce d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesiyle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan bir de\u011firmen t\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fcr (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

39) De\u011firmenin, i\u00e7ine, de\u011firmende \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmek \u00fczere konan \u015feyi [tah\u0131l\u0131] sal\u0131veren huni ya da yalak bi\u00e7imli par\u00e7as\u0131.<\/p>\n

40) Mill<\/em>, \u0130ngilizcede \u00f6nceleri un de\u011firmenleri i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan bir s\u00f6zc\u00fckt\u00fc. Sonralar\u0131 i\u00e7inde de\u011firmen d\u00fczenekleri bulunan genel anlamda \u201cfabrika\u201dlar i\u00e7in de kullan\u0131l\u0131r oldu. Power mills<\/em> su elektrik, petrol vb. kullan\u0131larak d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde enerjinin \u201cg\u00fc\u00e7\u201de, \u201ci\u015f\u201de d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, g\u00fcc\u00fc \u201cbeygir g\u00fcc\u00fc\u201d birimine g\u00f6re verilen binek arabalar\u0131ndaki gibi makinelere verilen add\u0131r (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

41) Tarihte ve g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, bildi\u011fim kadar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan Hindistan\u2019a dek uzanan \u00fclkelerde kullan\u0131lan, kuyulardan su \u00e7ekmede de yararlan\u0131lan bu su kald\u0131rac\u0131 arac\u0131na \u201c\u015faduf\u201d denmektedir (\u00e7.n.)<\/p>\n

42) D\u00fcz ovalar i\u00e7inden akan \u0131rmaklar\u0131n, zaman zaman g\u00f6r\u00fclen ta\u015fk\u0131nlarda getirip b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 topraklar, k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131ndaki tarlalarda sulamay\u0131, bu ama\u00e7la kanal a\u00e7may\u0131 \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015ftiren bir durumla, \u0131rmaklar\u0131n k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131nda metrelerce y\u00fcksekli\u011fi, y\u00fcz metrelerce geni\u015fli\u011fi bulabilen banklar olu\u015fturabilmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

43) Burada \u201cmakine\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fcyle anlat\u0131lmak istenen, par\u00e7alar\u0131 hareketli d\u00fczeneklerdir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

44) \u0130ster dikey ister yatay konu\u015fland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bulunsun, bir ucundan \u00f6tekine (vidalardaki gibi) sarmal girintiler ve \u00e7\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131lar oyulmu\u015f bir \u00e7ubu\u011fun, i\u00e7i oyulmu\u015f daha geni\u015f \u00e7apl\u0131 bir direk i\u00e7inde d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclmesiyle, oyuklara dolan suyun dire\u011fin \u00f6teki ucuna kadar ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131 sa\u011flanmaktad\u0131r. Bu d\u00fczene\u011fin, metal \u00f6rnekleri, tepelerine tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f mili di\u015flilerle d\u00f6nd\u00fcren yelde\u011firmeni pervaneleriyle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan bi\u00e7imleriyle Anadolu\u2019da (\u00f6rne\u011fin Manisa ovas\u0131nda) kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131labilmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

45) Bizim \u201cOrta\u00e7a\u011f\u201d dedi\u011fimiz (500-1500 aras\u0131) d\u00f6nemlere \u0130ngilizce tarihlerde \u201cOrta \u00c7a\u011flar\u201d (\u0130ng. Middle Ages<\/em>) denmektedir (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

46) Delik a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 ara\u00e7lar\u0131n d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclmesi i\u00e7in a\u011fa\u00e7tan, metalden ya da ikisinin kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f kanca bi\u00e7imli ara\u00e7.<\/p>\n

47) \u00c7evresi duvarlarla \u00e7evrili ve \u00e7iftlik evine biti\u015fik k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck topraklardan olu\u015fan (croft<\/em> denen) \u00e7iftlikleri kiralayarak ge\u00e7inen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7ift\u00e7iler.<\/p>\n

48) Bak. n. 35 (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

49) Metal testere di\u015fleri ayn\u0131 d\u00fczlem i\u00e7inde a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131rsa, ara\u00e7 bir s\u00fcre sonra s\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131r. \u00c7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc, di\u015flerden birini hafif\u00e7e sola, ondan sonrakini sa\u011fa e\u011fmekle bulunmu\u015ftur. Bu, tala\u015f\u0131n d\u0131\u015far\u0131 at\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 ve testereye s\u0131k\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 \u00f6nleyen hareket olana\u011f\u0131 veren geni\u015fletilmi\u015f bir kanal sa\u011flar. Di\u015fler zamanla sa\u011fa sola e\u011fimlerini yitirip, ayn\u0131 d\u00fczleme girince, testere \u201ck\u00f6relmi\u015f\u201d demektir. Bilenmesi, \u00f6zel bir ara\u00e7la, di\u015flerin gene sa\u011fa sola e\u011filmesiyle sa\u011flan\u0131r (\u00e7.n.).<\/p>\n

50) Bu \u00e7eviriden ve metindeki a\u00e7\u0131klamadan \u00e7\u0131karak yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131m ad\u0131n do\u011frulu\u011fundan ku\u015fkuluyum (\u00e7.n.)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Kullanmakta oldu\u011fumuz ara\u00e7lar tahta, ta\u015f, kemik, tun\u00e7 (bronz) ya da demir gibi \u00e7ok daha yal\u0131n objelerin yap\u0131m\u0131nda zamanla sa\u011flanan geli\u015fmelerin \u00fcst \u00fcste binip birikmesinin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. S\u00f6z konusu ara\u00e7lar \u00fczerlerinde, ilk yap\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 uzak k\u00f6kenlerinin ve ilk yap\u0131l\u0131p kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131nda bizimkilerden \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 toplumsal ve ekonomik \u00f6rg\u00fctleni\u015flerinin izlerini ta\u015f\u0131rlar. Ara\u00e7lar\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131ndan, izlenebildikleri kadar uzak ge\u00e7mi\u015flerinden g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ge\u00e7en uzun […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":492,"featured_media":16263,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[181,211,1464,222],"tags":[1907,1909,200,230,1908,543,430],"class_list":["post-16262","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-144-sayi","category-antropoloji","category-dosya","category-tarih","tag-araclarin-evrimi","tag-cag","tag-evrim","tag-insanlik-tarihi","tag-sinifli-toplumlar","tag-tarim","tag-toplum"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t