{"id":16840,"date":"2015-11-01T17:19:37","date_gmt":"2015-11-01T14:19:37","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=16840"},"modified":"2018-01-16T17:40:21","modified_gmt":"2018-01-16T14:40:21","slug":"gilgamis-destaninin-yeni-bulunan-yitik-halkasi-ve-dinsel-ideolojinin-tektanriciliga-dogru-kesintisiz-evrimi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2015\/11\/01\/gilgamis-destaninin-yeni-bulunan-yitik-halkasi-ve-dinsel-ideolojinin-tektanriciliga-dogru-kesintisiz-evrimi","title":{"rendered":"G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yeni bulunan yitik halkas\u0131 ve dinsel ideolojinin tektanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011fa do\u011fru kesintisiz evrimi"},"content":{"rendered":"

S\u00f6z konusu tabletin, yaln\u0131zca nicel bir bo\u015flu\u011fu doldurmas\u0131ndan \u00f6te, destan\u0131n, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla derlendi\u011fi\/yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n insan\u0131n\u0131n, yabanc\u0131 bir \u00fclkenin ormanlar\u0131n\u0131n kaba g\u00fc\u00e7le ya\u011fmalanmas\u0131, bek\u00e7isinin kafas\u0131n\u0131n kesilip tanr\u0131ya sunulmas\u0131 (bir yandan \u00f6v\u00fcl\u00fcrken) \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen yeni par\u00e7ada duyulan su\u00e7luluk duygusunun dile getirilmesi gibi nitel bir yenilik i\u00e7erdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Toplumumuz i\u00e7in ayr\u0131ca g\u00fcncel \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlara yol a\u00e7abilecek nitelikte: Yerle bir edildi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131 olan yer, s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131m\u0131z i\u00e7indeki Amanos Da\u011flar\u0131 ormanlar\u0131d\u0131r. Kesilen sedir a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a saray yap\u0131m\u0131nda kullan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenir! <\/em><\/p>\n

\u00c7a\u011fda\u015f bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, evrimi \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f tipte Homo sapiens<\/em> (bug\u00fcnk\u00fc insan) t\u00fcr\u00fcne varacak Homo <\/em>cinsinin \u00f6teki t\u00fcrlerinin \u201cyitik\u201d denen halkalar\u0131n\u0131, bir bir g\u00fcn y\u00fcz\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131karmakta. Bunun son \u00f6rne\u011fi Homo naledi<\/em>.(1)<\/sup> \u0130nsanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n biyolojik evriminin yitik halkalar\u0131 kadar k\u00fclt\u00fcrel evriminin yitik kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 da ivme kazanm\u0131\u015f durumda. Bunun son \u00f6rne\u011fi ise, ge\u00e7ti\u011fimiz haftalarda G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yitik tablet par\u00e7alar\u0131ndan birinin Kuzey Irak\u2019daki K\u00fcrdistan Yerel H\u00fck\u00fcmeti s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7indeki S\u00fcleymaniye M\u00fczesi\u2019nin tablet koleksiyonu i\u00e7inde bulunup \u00e7evrildi\u011fi haberi. S\u00f6z konusu tablet par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n Farouk Al-Rawi taraf\u0131ndan (2011\u2019de) ke\u015ffedilmesinden sonra, Al-Rawi ile destan\u0131n daha \u00f6nce bulunan par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n uzman\u0131 A. R. George\u2019un ortak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla (2012\u2019de) \u00e7evrilip, destandaki yerinin saptand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n, \u00f6nce bilim \u00e7evrelerine sonra d\u00fcnya medyas\u0131na JCS<\/em>\u2019deki bir yaz\u0131yla duyurulup a\u00e7\u0131klan\u0131\u015f\u0131.(2)<\/sup><\/p>\n

\"\"Tablet par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerindeki \u00e7iviyaz\u0131s\u0131 okunup \u00e7evrilince, onun, Destan\u2019\u0131n daha \u00f6nceki par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n kopukluk g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi yere yerle\u015ftirilebilecek bir bo\u015flu\u011fu doldurdu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. S\u00f6z konusu tabletin, yaln\u0131zca nicel bir bo\u015flu\u011fu doldurmas\u0131ndan \u00f6te, destan\u0131n, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla derlendi\u011fi\/yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n insan\u0131n\u0131n, yabanc\u0131 bir \u00fclkenin ormanlar\u0131n\u0131n kaba g\u00fc\u00e7le ya\u011fmalanmas\u0131, bek\u00e7isinin kafas\u0131n\u0131n kesilip tanr\u0131ya sunulmas\u0131 (bir yandan \u00f6v\u00fcl\u00fcrken) \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen yeni par\u00e7ada duyulan su\u00e7luluk duygusunun dile getirilmesi gibi nitel bir yenilik i\u00e7erdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f dillere \u00e7evirisi, toplumumuz i\u00e7in ayr\u0131ca g\u00fcncel \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlara yol a\u00e7abilecek nitelikte: Yerle bir edildi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131 olan yer, s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131m\u0131z i\u00e7indeki Amanos Da\u011flar\u0131 ormanlar\u0131d\u0131r. Kesilen sedir a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a saray yap\u0131m\u0131nda kullan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenir! En y\u00fcksek sedirin Uruk\u2019ta yap\u0131lmas\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen b\u00fcy\u00fck bir tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n y\u00fcksek kap\u0131s\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 \u00f6nerilmi\u015ftir. Bu ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n de\u011ferlendirilmesine ve yorumuna girmeden \u00f6nce, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 konusunu an\u0131msamakta yarar var. Bir ba\u015fka \u00f6nemli nokta, gerek \u00f6yk\u00fcn\u00fcn co\u011frafyas\u0131n\u0131n (Mezopotamya\u2019n\u0131n) ve tabletlerinin bulundu\u011fu yerlerin (Nineveh, Babil, Hattu\u015fa\u015f, Uruk [Tevrat<\/em>\u2019\u0131n Erek\u2019i, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Varka] hepsinin, ge\u00e7mi\u015fte ortak k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn \u00fcretildi\u011fi ve yeniden \u00fcretildi\u011fi yerler olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz k\u00fclt\u00fcrel dokusunda s\u00f6z konusu k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn ve inan\u00e7lar\u0131n kal\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131n bulunaca\u011f\u0131 ger\u00e7e\u011fidir.<\/p>\n

\u00d6yk\u00fc ve yorumu<\/strong><\/p>\n

G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f, \u00f6yk\u00fcye g\u00f6re, Uruk kent devletinin zorba egemenidir. Onu \u201czorba\u201d olarak yorumlamam\u0131z\u0131 hakl\u0131 g\u00f6sterecek (destandaki) iki ipucundan biri, halk\u0131, \u00fcnl\u00fc Uruk surlar\u0131n\u0131n ve kentin koruyucu tanr\u0131s\u0131 Enlil\u2019in Eanna ad\u0131 verilen tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131nda zorla ve amans\u0131zca \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6tekisi, egemene tan\u0131nan \u201cilk gece hakk\u0131\u201d ayr\u0131cal\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131\u015flamay\u0131p, evlenen her k\u0131zla, damattan \u00f6nce yatmas\u0131d\u0131r. Dahas\u0131, soylular\u0131n kar\u0131lar\u0131na el atmas\u0131d\u0131r. O\u011fullar\u0131 (anla\u015f\u0131lan, sava\u015fa g\u00f6t\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in) toplamas\u0131d\u0131r.(3)<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Enkidu ve G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Uruk halk\u0131n\u0131n yakar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 i\u015fiten tanr\u0131lar, \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc ona denk g\u00fc\u00e7te bir \u201cyaban adam\u0131\u201d yarat\u0131p \u00fczerine g\u00f6ndermede bulurlar. Bu \u00f6yk\u00fc herhangi bir tarihsel ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi yans\u0131tmakta m\u0131d\u0131r? Bu konuda tarihin ak\u0131\u015f\u0131na ve destandaki ipu\u00e7lar\u0131na dayand\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131m yorumum \u015f\u00f6yle:(4)<\/sup> G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f (\u201c\u00fc\u00e7te ikisi tanr\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7te biri insand\u0131\u201d denmekle birlikte) ne tanr\u0131 kral ne de rahip kral idi. Siyasal erk kadrolar\u0131n\u0131n dincilerden (din adamlar\u0131ndan) sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lara (askerlere) ge\u00e7ti\u011fi d\u00f6nemin y\u00f6neticisiydi. Din adamlar\u0131, onu devirip eski egemenlik konumlar\u0131na ula\u015fmak i\u00e7in, asl\u0131nda tanr\u0131lara de\u011fil, Mezopotamya uygar toplumlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7evresindeki da\u011fl\u0131klarda ya\u015fayan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131, barbar topluluklar\u0131n\u0131n \u015feflerine ba\u015fvurmu\u015f olmal\u0131lar. B\u00f6yle durumlara kar\u015f\u0131 uygar toplumlar\u0131n y\u00f6neticileri, \u00fclkelerine sald\u0131r\u0131p ya\u011fmalayacak barbar topluluklar\u0131 kiralay\u0131p ordular\u0131na alma politikas\u0131 geli\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. B\u00f6ylece barbar sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131na \u201cbarbar\u0131 barbara k\u0131rd\u0131rarak\u201d kar\u015f\u0131 durabilmektedirler.<\/p>\n

Uygar toplumlar\u0131n geleneksel politikalar\u0131na uygun olarak, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f (destanda Enkidu olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan) bir barbar \u015fefini (ve olas\u0131l\u0131kla onun halk\u0131n\u0131, sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 da) koruma birli\u011fine alm\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor. Bu sonuca varacak olaylar (destanda yaz\u0131lanlara g\u00f6re) \u015f\u00f6yle geli\u015fir.(5)<\/sup> Ba\u015ftanr\u0131 G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131 Anu, tanr\u0131\u00e7a Aruru\u2019ya G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a denk bir canl\u0131 yapmas\u0131n\u0131 (yaratmas\u0131n\u0131) buyurur. Aruru, \u201czihninde g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fc [tanr\u0131] olan Anu\u2019nun maddesinden bir \u015fekil olu\u015fturdu. Elini suya dald\u0131r\u0131p bir tutam \u00e7amur \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. \u00c7amuru da \u00e7\u00f6le d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrd\u00fc. Soylu Enkidu b\u00f6yle yarat\u0131ld\u0131.(6)<\/sup> Enkidu bir yaban orman insan\u0131d\u0131r. Hayvanlarla dost\u00e7a ya\u015far. Onlar\u0131 avc\u0131n\u0131n tuzaklar\u0131ndan kurtar\u0131r. Avc\u0131, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a ba\u015fvurur. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f, yan\u0131na A\u015fk (ve Sava\u015f!) Tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 \u0130\u015ftar\u2019\u0131n tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 yarar\u0131na \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan fahi\u015felerden birini verip, onu ormana geri yollar. Enkidu hayvanlarla birlikte sulanmaya inince, kad\u0131n, kendinden istendi\u011fi gibi, g\u00f6\u011fs\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131p Enkidu\u2019yu (ne\u00a0demekse o da) ba\u015ftan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r. Alt\u0131 g\u00fcn, yedi gece birlikte olurlar. Enkidu hayvanlar\u0131na geri d\u00f6nmek isteyince, onlar kendinden ka\u00e7arlar. Onlarla birlikte ko\u015famayacak kadar da g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kad\u0131n, ondaki bu de\u011fi\u015fmeyi \u201cSen Enkidu bilgesin, Tanr\u0131ya benzedin art\u0131k\u201d(7)<\/sup> diye a\u00e7\u0131klar. Hayvanlar\u0131 ve orman\u0131 [barbarl\u0131\u011f\u0131] b\u0131rak\u0131p kendisiyle birlikte Uruk kentine [uygarl\u0131\u011fa] gelmesini s\u00f6yler.<\/p>\n

Enkidu\u2019dan, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ile d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015f\u00fcp, onun zorbal\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nlemesi (tanr\u0131larca) istenmi\u015ftir. \u00d6te yandan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f, Enkidu\u2019nun gelece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015flerinde g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Kente inen Enkidu, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 \u201cevlendirme evi\u201d denen yere damattan \u00f6nce girme giri\u015fiminde bulup, kap\u0131y\u0131 tutar. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ile Enkidu kap\u0131\u015f\u0131rlar. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f onu yere yat\u0131r\u0131nca (d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde duydu\u011funa benzer cinsel duygulara kap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131 ki(8)<\/sup>) \u00f6fkesi ge\u00e7er. Birbirlerine sar\u0131l\u0131r, dost olurlar. Asl\u0131nda Enkidu G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n hizmetine girmi\u015f, a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7as\u0131 onun kulu k\u00f6lesi, en az\u0131ndan korumas\u0131 olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

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G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrken.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Destan, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n, \u00f6teki egemenler gibi sava\u015fta zafer kazan\u0131p, sava\u015f ganimetleriyle tap\u0131nak, saray yapt\u0131r\u0131p, temel tu\u011flalar\u0131na (gelenek \u00fczre) ad\u0131n\u0131 yazd\u0131rma (tarih yazma) tutkusunun anlat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 sat\u0131rlarla yeni bir y\u00f6n al\u0131r. Bu tutkusunu Enkidu\u2019ya, \u201c\u00fclkede k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fck oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in, ormana gidip k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ortadan kald\u0131raca\u011f\u0131z. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc ormanda \u201c\u0130rilik\u201d ad\u0131 alt\u0131nda tan\u0131nan, canavar ruhlu bir dev, Humbaba ya\u015f\u0131yor(9)<\/sup> der. Onu \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcp Sedir tomruklar\u0131 getirmek i\u00e7in Enkidu ile birlikte sefere \u00e7\u0131kmak ister. Orman\u0131 iyi tan\u0131yan Enkidu, onu bu tehlikeli i\u015ften vazge\u00e7irmek isterse de ba\u015faramaz. Silahlan\u0131p yola koyulurlar.<\/p>\n

Amanoslar\u2019da, Mezopotamya\u2019n\u0131n dinsel ba\u015fkenti Nippur\u2019un tanr\u0131s\u0131 Enlil\u2019in ormanlar\u0131 vard\u0131r. Korumas\u0131 i\u00e7in bek\u00e7i olarak Humbaba (kimi \u00e7evirilerde Huvava) g\u00f6revlendirilmi\u015ftir.(10)<\/sup><\/p>\n

G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f k\u0131rk be\u015f okkal\u0131k baltas\u0131yla ilk sediri kesip devirir devirmez Humbaba, sesini duyup \u201ckorular\u0131ma sald\u0131ran kimdir?\u201d der. Bu, anla\u015f\u0131lan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 ve Enkidu\u2019yu korkutur. Okuyucu, tanr\u0131lar kurulunun insanlar i\u00e7in bi\u00e7ti\u011fi yazg\u0131n\u0131n gere\u011finin uygulay\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 tanr\u0131 Enlil\u2019in orman\u0131n\u0131 yerle bir edecek G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ile Enkidu\u2019yu engellemesini ya da cezaland\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131 beklerken, onlar\u0131 azarlamakla yetinece\u011fini (ileriki sat\u0131rlarda) okuyacakt\u0131r. Tanr\u0131lar\u0131n onlar\u0131 engellemesi yerine, \u00f6yk\u00fcn\u00fcn i\u00e7 mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na uymayan bir anlat\u0131yla, tanr\u0131 Enlil\u2019in orman\u0131n\u0131n insanlarca talan edilmesine tepki g\u00f6stermesi beklenebilecek adalet tanr\u0131s\u0131 \u015eama\u015f, tam tersine \u201ckorkmadan ilerleyiniz\u201d diye onlar\u0131 y\u00fcreklendirir. Humbaba sedirden yap\u0131l\u0131 sa\u011flam bir evden \u00e7\u0131kar kar\u015f\u0131lar\u0131na dikilir. \u0130lk yedi b\u00fcy\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc tak\u0131n\u0131r. O\u2019nu, geri kalan alt\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc tak\u0131namadan, silahlanamadan yakalamak isterler. Humbaba \u00f6l\u00fcm g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f \u00fczerine diker. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f \u015eama\u015f\u2019tan yard\u0131m ister. \u015eama\u015f \u00e7e\u015fitli k\u00f6t\u00fc yelleri Humbaba \u00fczerine yollar. Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n eli kolu tutulup ileri geri ad\u0131m atamaz olur(11)<\/sup> G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu (\u201cinlerine girece\u011fim\u201d deyi\u015fini \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran bir deyi\u015fle) Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n sald\u0131\u011f\u0131 yal\u0131mlara [orman yang\u0131n\u0131 olmal\u0131] kar\u015f\u0131n, 7 sedir keserek ilerleyip \u201conun inine ula\u015ft\u0131lar\u201d.(12)<\/sup><\/p>\n

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G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131 i\u00e7eren Akadca bir tablet
(British Museum).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Humbaba aman dileyip, kendisine ac\u0131malar\u0131 i\u00e7in \u201c\u00f6ks\u00fcz do\u011fdum, ormanda b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fcm\u201d der. Enlil\u2019in kendisini orman\u0131n\u0131n bek\u00e7ili\u011fine atad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yler. \u201c\u00d6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fc ba\u011f\u0131\u015fla; kulun olay\u0131m; sen de h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131m ol. Da\u011fda yeti\u015ftirip bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m orman\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131 senin olsun. Onlar\u0131 kesip sana saray yapaca\u011f\u0131m\u201d diye ekler. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 elinden tutup evine g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcr. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f yumu\u015fam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Enkidu\u2019ya, onu serbest b\u0131rakal\u0131m, tutsak edilmi\u015f ku\u015f yavrusunun da, insan\u0131n da annesinin kollar\u0131na d\u00f6nmesine haklar\u0131 yok mudur? der. Enkidu [ormandan, ormanc\u0131dan yana olmas\u0131 beklenirken, kraldan \u00e7ok kralc\u0131 tutumuyla] \u201cinsanlar\u0131n en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcs\u00fc bile, ak\u0131ls\u0131zsa al\u0131nyaz\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6lesi olmaktan kurtulamaz\u201d(13)<\/sup> diyerek Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesinden yana g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f bildirir. Serbest b\u0131rak\u0131rsa as\u0131l kendisinin annesinin bekledi\u011fi kente d\u00f6nemeyece\u011fini s\u00f6yler. Bu (yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f inanc\u0131yla tutarl\u0131 olmayan(14)<\/sup>) s\u00f6zlerinin alt\u0131nda s\u00f6ylemek istedi\u011fi \u201cmerhamet eden merhamet edilecek duruma d\u00fc\u015fer\u201d gibi bir \u015feydir. Bunun \u00fczerine, \u00f6nce G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f k\u0131l\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n boynuna \u00e7alar. Enkidu ikinci vuru\u015fu yapar. \u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc vuru\u015fta Humbaba y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131r. Orman titrer, a\u011fa\u00e7lar (koruyucusu \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden) yalpalar. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu sedirlere sald\u0131r\u0131rlar. A\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131 kesip, Uruk r\u0131ht\u0131m\u0131nda karaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in demet edip ba\u011flar, buday\u0131p F\u0131rat\u2019a salarlar. Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n kesik ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 [gene g\u00fcncel \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlar!] Enlil\u2019in \u00f6n\u00fcne koyarlar. Topra\u011f\u0131 [Papa\u2019y\u0131 an\u0131msat\u0131rcas\u0131na] \u00f6perler. Enlil Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n kesik ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnce onlara \u00f6fkelenip k\u00f6p\u00fcr\u00fcr: \u201cBunu neden yapt\u0131n\u0131z? Bundan b\u00f6yle ate\u015f y\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcz\u00fc kaplas\u0131n…\u201d (beddual\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlar!). Demek ki din dili b\u00f6yle!<\/p>\n

Eksik oldu\u011fu bilinmeyen halkan\u0131n bulunmas\u0131ndan \u00f6nceki tablet par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n, \u00f6yk\u00fcn\u00fcn buras\u0131na kadarki rekonstr\u00fcksiyonu sona yakla\u015f\u0131r. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n cezaland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 \u015f\u00f6yle dursun son c\u00fcmlede \u201cKral ve korkun\u00e7 yal\u0131m\u0131n fatihi; da\u011f\u0131 ya\u011fmalayan yaban\u0131l bo\u011fa, denizi a\u015fan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f! Sanad\u0131r hep ad da, onur da, \u00fcn de!\u201d denerek tablet sona erdirilir.<\/p>\n

Bundan sonraki tablette, bereket ve sava\u015f tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 \u0130\u015ftar\u2019\u0131n G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a tutulmas\u0131; O\u2019ndan kendisine d\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fc verip kocas\u0131 olmas\u0131n\u0131 istemesi konusu i\u015flenmi\u015ftir. Yaz\u0131, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n, tanr\u0131\u00e7an\u0131n tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ambarlar\u0131n\u0131 doldurabilece\u011fini s\u00f6ylemekle birlikte (\u201ceski sevdiklerini hep harcad\u0131n\u201d diye) kocas\u0131 olmay\u0131 reddedi\u015fiyle s\u00fcrecektir. Onlara ve sonraki \u00f6yk\u00fclere ge\u00e7meden yeni \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen par\u00e7adan s\u00f6z etmenin yeri ve zaman\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Yeni \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen par\u00e7ada yeni olan ne?<\/strong><\/p>\n

K\u00fcrdistan Yerel H\u00fck\u00fcmeti\u2019nin Kuzey Irak\u2019taki b\u00f6lgesi i\u00e7indeki S\u00fcleymaniye M\u00fczesi tablet koleksiyonu i\u00e7inde Farouk Al-Rawi taraf\u0131ndan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n bulundu\u011fu 2011\u2019de saptan\u0131r. Tabletin yirmiyi a\u015fk\u0131n sat\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n Destan\u2019\u0131n Yeni Babilonya \u00e7e\u015fitlemesinin (versiyonunun) V. tabletinin 6. s\u00fctununun sol yar\u0131s\u0131 oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc (\u00e7evirisi) \u00f6nce bilim \u00e7evrelerine, bu ay da d\u00fcnya medyas\u0131na duyurulmu\u015f bulunuyor.<\/p>\n

S\u00f6z konusu par\u00e7ada, \u00f6nce G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ile Enkidu\u2019nun girdikleri orman\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bir g\u00fczellemesi yap\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Sedirlerden ya\u011fmur \u00e7iselercesine akan re\u00e7ineden, ormandaki ku\u015flar\u0131n ve maymunlar\u0131n \u015famatas\u0131n\u0131n m\u00fczi\u011fine dek, \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f romanlar\u0131nkini an\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran bir betimleme de bulunmaktad\u0131r. Bu seslerin her g\u00fcn orman\u0131n bek\u00e7isi Humbaba i\u00e7in bir e\u011flence olu\u015fturdu\u011fu belirtilmektedir. Burada Humbaba, Farouk Al-Rawi ile A. R. George\u2019un a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u00f6teki ve eksik \u00e7e\u015fitlemelerdeki bildik barbar bir canavardan farkl\u0131 [y\u00f6n\u00fcyle] sunulmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6yle ki yaz\u0131lanlar, Yak\u0131ndo\u011fu antik sanat\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen m\u00fczik ara\u00e7lar\u0131 \u00e7alan hayvan betimlemelerini \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131r: B\u00f6ylece Humbaba, saray\u0131nda m\u00fczik \u00e7al\u0131narak e\u011flendirilen Babilonya krallar\u0131na yakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmaktad\u0131r.(15)<\/sup> Bir farkla ki, orman\u0131n m\u00fczi\u011fi de m\u00fczik\u00e7ileri de, Al-Rawi ve George\u2019a g\u00f6re, bildik t\u00fcrden de\u011fil, egzotiktir.<\/p>\n

Bir ba\u015fka (61-72. sat\u0131rlar aras\u0131) par\u00e7adan, orman insan\u0131 Enkidu\u2019nun, gen\u00e7li\u011finde bir ara Humbaba ile ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirtiliyor. Bu durumda Enkidu, yan\u0131nda bir d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 getiren hain konumuna d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f oluyor. Buradaki sat\u0131rlar\u0131n \u00f6nemi, okuyucunun\/dinleyicinin (\u00f6teki \u00e7e\u015fitlemelerde bulunmayan bir durumla) Enkidu\u2019nun pi\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve su\u00e7luluk duygusuna haz\u0131rlan\u0131yor olmas\u0131nda yatmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Yitik sat\u0131rlar bulunup \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclmeden \u00f6nce de, elimizdeki par\u00e7alarda, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu Humbaba\u2019y\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcrmeden \u00f6nce yapmakta olduklar\u0131 i\u015fin, d\u00fcnyay\u0131 y\u00f6neten kozmik g\u00fc\u00e7leri, \u00f6zellikle f\u0131rt\u0131na tanr\u0131 Enlil\u2019i k\u0131zd\u0131raca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bildikleri anlat\u0131lmaktayd\u0131.(16)<\/sup> Bulunan par\u00e7ada, bundan \u00f6te, eylemden sonra Enkidu\u2019nun \u201corman\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6le \u00e7evirdik\u201d olarak \u00e7evrilebilecek s\u00f6z\u00fcnde, duyduklar\u0131 su\u00e7luluk ve vicdan azab\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131k olarak dile getirilmi\u015f olur. Enkidu eve d\u00f6nd\u00fcklerinde Enlil\u2019in kendilerine \u201cnedir bu \u00f6fkeniz ki orman\u0131 y\u0131k\u0131p \u00e7i\u011fnediniz\u201d (olarak \u00e7evrilebilecek) sorusuyla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015facaklar\u0131ndan korkmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bu \u00e7evirileri ve a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131 yapan Al-Rawi ve George, destan\u0131n ozan\u0131n\u0131n, ekolojik bilin\u00e7le Humbaba\u2019ya ve orman\u0131na yap\u0131lanlar\u0131 ahlaks\u0131zl\u0131k olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ortaya koydu\u011fu yorumunu getirmektedirler. Ancak bulunup destana eklenen bu par\u00e7ada da, birka\u00e7 sat\u0131r sonra Humbaba, \u201cmasum kurban\u201d konumundan yeniden \u201ck\u00f6t\u00fc bir ter\u00f6rc\u00fc\u201d konumuna d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kendileri yazmaktad\u0131r.(17)<\/sup> Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla eklenen sat\u0131rlar, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n olumlu Humbaba\u2019n\u0131n olumsuz alg\u0131lar\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir de\u011fi\u015fiklik yaratacak nitelikte de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n

Destan\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca temalar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 \u00f6zetinde, yeni ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan par\u00e7aya kadar ve o par\u00e7ada i\u015flenen temalara \u00f6zetleme s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde de\u011finildi. Destan\u2019\u0131n bulunan par\u00e7adan sonraki temalar\u0131n\u0131n ele\u015ftirel yorumuna ge\u00e7meden iki \u00f6nemli temas\u0131na da de\u011finmenin yarar\u0131 var.<\/p>\n

\"\"
G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu\u2019yu Humbaba\u2019y\u0131 tutsak ederken g\u00f6steren kabartma.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Y\u00f6neticinin kayr\u0131l\u0131p uyru\u011fun harcanmas\u0131<\/strong>: Eksikli\u011fi tamamlayan sat\u0131rlardan sonra eskiden beri bilinen tabletlerde i\u015flenen temalardan biri, su\u00e7un faturas\u0131n\u0131n, kahramana de\u011fil hizmet\u00e7isine kesilmesidir.(18)<\/sup> Gerek bir tanr\u0131n\u0131n a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n kesilmesi gerek bek\u00e7isinin ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kesilmesi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, Destan\u2019\u0131n kahramanlar\u0131na azarlanmaktan \u00f6te bir ceza kesilmemi\u015ftir. Ceza, ba\u015ftanr\u0131 Anu\u2019nun \u201cG\u00f6k\u2019\u00fcn Bo\u011fas\u0131\u201d denen cezaland\u0131r\u0131c\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesi \u00fczerine kesilir. Gerek\u00e7esi \u015fu: A\u015fk ve Sava\u015f tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 \u0130\u015ftar, bir \u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc olan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a tutulmu\u015f ve kendisiyle yat\u0131p kocas\u0131 olmas\u0131n\u0131 istemi\u015ftir. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f kabul etmeyince, onuru incinen \u0130\u015ftar, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n kendini de\u011fil kentini cezaland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in \u201cG\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fc Bo\u011fas\u0131\u201d denen (g\u00fcnler boyu ya\u011f\u0131\u015f\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fclmedi\u011fi bulutsuz g\u00f6klerde k\u0131zg\u0131n g\u00fcne\u015f ve yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7orakl\u0131k, k\u0131tl\u0131k kurakl\u0131k olarak yorumlanan) cezaland\u0131r\u0131c\u0131y\u0131 babas\u0131 G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131 Anu\u2019dan isteyip Uruk\u2019a salar. Bo\u011fan\u0131n her b\u00f6\u011f\u00fcr\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde yerler yar\u0131l\u0131r, y\u00fczlerce insan \u00f6l\u00fcr. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f ve Enkidu onu durdurmak i\u00e7in kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131na \u00e7\u0131karlar: Enkidu bo\u011fan\u0131n boynuzlar\u0131n\u0131 yakalay\u0131p onu devirir. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f k\u0131l\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 ensesiyle boynuzlar\u0131 aras\u0131na saplay\u0131p cans\u0131z yere serer. Y\u00fcre\u011fini \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131p \u015eama\u015f\u2019a sunar.(19)<\/sup> Anu, Enlil, Ea (S\u00fcmer Enki\u2019si) ve \u015eama\u015f toplan\u0131p, Humbaba\u2019y\u0131 ve Bo\u011fa\u2019y\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcren ikisinden (nedense) birinin \u00f6lmesine karar vereceklerdir. Karar Enkidu\u2019nun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00e7in \u00e7\u0131kar. Oysa her iki olayda Enkidu yard\u0131mc\u0131, \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcc\u00fc vuru\u015fu yapansa G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019t\u0131r. Destan\u2019da kral, ba\u015fka konularda oldu\u011fu gibi bunda da a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a kayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u00d6l\u00fcm korkusu ve \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fck umudu i\u00e7inde k\u0131vranan insan: Bilindi\u011fi gibi Enkidu\u2019nun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 yasa bo\u011far. Ancak, \u00fcz\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn as\u0131l kayna\u011f\u0131 bir g\u00fcn dostu gibi kendisinin de toprak olaca\u011f\u0131 ger\u00e7e\u011finin kafas\u0131na dank etmesidir. \u00d6yleyse G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f, hemen her insan gibi, ba\u015fkas\u0131n\u0131n mezar\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131nda kendi \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne a\u011flamaktad\u0131r. \u00d6l\u00fcm korkusu, \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fcz olma iste\u011fi birey insanlar\u0131n herkeste bulunan duygular\u0131d\u0131r. Kimi yorumcular G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n oda\u011f\u0131na bu sorunsal\u0131 koymakta, yap\u0131t\u0131 bir \u201cpsikolojik roman\u201d ya da \u201cfelsefi deneme\u201d gibi g\u00f6rmektedir. Burada (genel yorum ve de\u011ferlendirmeler i\u00e7inde) ise G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131, dinsel ideolojide yazg\u0131 kavram\u0131n\u0131n i\u015fleni\u015fi \u00fczerinden de\u011ferlendirilmektedir.<\/p>\n

Nuh Tufan\u0131: \u00c7oktanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131ktan tektanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011fa ba\u011flant\u0131 ve siyasal yasall\u0131k mitosu: Tufan \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fc G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n (Yeni Babilonya \u00e7e\u015fitlemesinde bulunmay\u0131p) Asur \u00e7e\u015fitlemesi sonuna yamanm\u0131\u015f olup gibi durmaktad\u0131r.(20) <\/sup><\/p>\n

Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla burada Tufan\u2019\u0131n iyi bilinen konusuna girilmeyip dinsel ideolojinin \u00e7oktanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131ktan tektanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011fa evriminin ba\u011flant\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 vermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6neme de\u011finilmesiyle yetinilecek. S\u00f6z konusu ba\u011flant\u0131, destan\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli dillerde, \u00e7e\u015fitli halklarda, \u00e7e\u015fitli tarihlerde yay\u0131lan \u00e7e\u015fitlemelerinde Tufan\u2019\u0131n kahraman\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fen adlar\u0131n\u0131n izlenmesiyle bile anla\u015f\u0131labilir. Sami dilindeki G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 i\u00e7inde G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n tanr\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fckle \u00f6d\u00fcllendirdi\u011fi atas\u0131n\u0131n ad\u0131 Utnapi\u015ftim. Onun kayna\u011f\u0131ndaki S\u00fcmerce tabletlerde Tufan\u2019\u0131n kahraman\u0131n ad\u0131 Ziusudra. \u0130skender\u2019in Babil\u2019i ele ge\u00e7irdi\u011fi tarihte Marduk tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fdincisi Berosios\u2019un \u0130skender\u2019in iste\u011fi \u00fczerine yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Yunanca \u201cBabylonika\u201d tarihinde, S\u00fcmerce ad\u0131n\u0131n Yunanca transkripsiyonuyla bu Ksisutros bi\u00e7imine \u00e7evrilir. Bilindi\u011fi gibi bir ba\u015fka Sami dili \u0130branice ile yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f Tevrat<\/em> i\u00e7inde Noah, Arap\u00e7a ve T\u00fcrk\u00e7e Kur\u2019an<\/em>\u2019da Nuh olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Burada, yeri gelmi\u015fken, Tufan \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn kayna\u011f\u0131yla ve i\u015fleviyle ilgili birka\u00e7 a\u00e7\u0131klamada bulunmakta yarar var. Destan\u2019da Tufan\u2019\u0131, \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fck otunu aramaya \u00e7\u0131kan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n tanr\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fck ba\u011f\u0131\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 atas\u0131ndan dinledi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Ger\u00e7eklikte Tufan, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ta\u015fk\u0131n ovalar\u0131n co\u011frafyas\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcre\u011fen bir olgusudur. Bu nedensel do\u011fa olgusu, dinsel ideolojinin \u00fcreticilerinin ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131n ve bilgi da\u011farc\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n bir \u00f6\u011fesi olarak ister istemez \u00f6yk\u00fclerine yans\u0131yacakt\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece onu, tanr\u0131lar\u0131n buyruklar\u0131na uymayan kullar\u0131 cezaland\u0131rma ama\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n arac\u0131 olarak ereksel yorumdan ge\u00e7irip s\u00f6zl\u00fc mitolojilerine ve dinsel yaz\u0131l\u0131 belgelerine koyduklar\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6yk\u00fcn\u00fcn d\u00fczenlenmesi, kimi anlat\u0131mlarda n\u00fcfusu artan yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde insanlar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcn\u00fcn g\u00f6klerdeki tanr\u0131lar\u0131 rahats\u0131z etti\u011fi mitosuyla kentlerde (\u00e7a\u011fda\u015f toplumbiliminde \u201canomi\u201d denen olguyla) kalabal\u0131klar\u0131n y\u00f6neticilerce ve dincilerce denetlenemez olmas\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r. Tufan(lar)dan sonra yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde insanlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmesi ger\u00e7e\u011fi, Tufandan kurtar\u0131lan tek bir sofu kulun soyuyla a\u00e7\u0131klanacakt\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece g\u00fcnahk\u00e2r insanl\u0131k yok edilirken Nuh gibi tanr\u0131n\u0131n buyruklar\u0131na uyacak yeni, inan\u00e7l\u0131 ve uysal bir insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n tohumlar\u0131 at\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

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Enkidu\u2019nun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 yasa bo\u011far. Ancak, \u00fcz\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn as\u0131l kayna\u011f\u0131 bir g\u00fcn dostu gibi kendisinin de toprak olaca\u011f\u0131 ger\u00e7e\u011finin kafas\u0131na dank etmesidir.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 sonuna konan Tufan mitosunun bir \u00f6nemi de ondan tektanr\u0131c\u0131 dini benimsemi\u015f\/benimsetilmi\u015f halklar\u0131n (Osmanl\u0131 i\u00e7inde) egemenlerinin y\u00f6netimlerinin yasall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 (me\u015fruiyetini) hanedanlar\u0131n\u0131n Nuh soyundan gelmi\u015f olmas\u0131yla savunmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Tufan\u0131n Tevrat<\/em> i\u00e7inde i\u015flenen \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcne g\u00f6re Ham, Sam, Yafet olarak \u00fc\u00e7 o\u011flu olmu\u015ftur(21)<\/sup> (k\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemi yok ki! s\u00f6z\u00fc edilmemektedir). Yani insanl\u0131k soyunun Hami dili konu\u015fan halklar\u0131 (M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar) Ham\u2019dan, Sami dilleri konu\u015fan (Yahudiler, Araplar) Sam\u2019dan, Yafetik diller (Hint-Avrupa dilleri) konu\u015fanlar Yafet\u2019ten t\u00fcremi\u015ftir. Bu yoruma dayanarak Avrupa egemenleri kendilerini Yafet\u2019e dayand\u0131r\u0131lan soya\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131 d\u00fczenletmi\u015flerdir. Osmanl\u0131 padi\u015fah\u0131 da soya\u011fac\u0131n\u0131 (Taner Timur\u2019a g\u00f6re) Sam\u2019a de\u011fil Yafet\u2019e dayand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Genel de\u011ferlendirme ve yorumlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u0130nsanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcrel, toplumsal evriminde s\u0131n\u0131fs\u0131z topluluklardan s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131, devletli toplumlara ilk ge\u00e7ildi\u011fi yer, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk yaz\u0131l\u0131 belgelerinde \u201cS\u00fcmer\u201d denen A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Mezopotamya\u2019d\u0131r. S\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 toplumu a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131p, aklay\u0131p yeniden \u00fcretilmesini kolayla\u015ft\u0131ran ilk dinsel ideoloji de burada geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Onun g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kalabilen en \u00f6nemli yaz\u0131l\u0131 belgelerinden biri Enuma Eli\u015f Babil Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 ise, \u00f6tekisi, denebilir ki, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 olsa gerektir. Her ikisinin kayna\u011f\u0131 S\u00fcmer yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f mitosudur. Onda, s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 toplumun e\u015fitsizlik\u00e7i insan-insan ili\u015fkileri, yaratan tanr\u0131 – yarat\u0131lan kul ili\u015fkisi \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcnde yans\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 zamanda insan-insan ili\u015fkileri, yaratan sanal \u00f6zne ile yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenen ger\u00e7ek insan \u00f6znesi aras\u0131 bu sanal ili\u015fki kal\u0131b\u0131ndan yeniden \u00fcretilir. B\u00f6ylece e\u015fitsiz konumlu ger\u00e7ek insan \u00f6zneler aras\u0131 ili\u015fkiler s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcp y\u00f6nlendirilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bu bak\u0131mdan, k\u0131r\u0131k ve da\u011f\u0131n\u0131k ama ku\u015faklar boyunca kopyalanm\u0131\u015f, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla zaman\u0131m\u0131za kalabilmi\u015f G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n daha \u00f6nce saptan\u0131p \u00e7evrilemeyen 20 kadar sat\u0131rl\u0131k k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinde yaz\u0131l\u0131 olanlar (elinizdeki yaz\u0131da oldu\u011fu gibi destan\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc \u00fczerinde bir kez daha durulmas\u0131 f\u0131rsat\u0131 yaratmaktan \u00f6te) i\u00e7eri\u011fi hakk\u0131ndaki bilgimizde herhangi bir \u00f6nemli de\u011fi\u015fiklik yaratacak nitelikte de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n

Destan\u2019\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcne bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yukar\u0131daki genel yorumu destekleyen \u015fu de\u011ferlendirmeler ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclebilir.<\/p>\n

\u00c7amurdan yarat\u0131lma<\/strong>: Mezopotamya (ki \u201c\u0131rmaklararas\u0131\u201d demektir) ta\u015fk\u0131n ovalar\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck sulama tar\u0131m\u0131yla y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen \u00fcretimin ve yarat\u0131lan art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn, batakl\u0131klar\u0131n (aka\u00e7lamayla kurutulup) \u00fczerinde kentlerin, uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ko\u015fullar\u0131n zihinlere d\u00fc\u015fen, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclen \u00e7arp\u0131k hatta tepetakla edilmi\u015f alg\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. \u015eu anlamda tepetakla ki, \u00fcreten yaratan ger\u00e7ek \u00f6zneler, yarat\u0131lan kullar olarak edilgin konumda g\u00f6sterilmektedir.<\/p>\n

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G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yeni bulunan dizelerini i\u00e7eren tablet.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ruh \u00fcfleme<\/strong>: D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncede, bal\u00e7\u0131k gibi devinimsiz bir maddeden devinimli bir canl\u0131y\u0131 t\u00fcretmek i\u00e7in, onu devinime ge\u00e7irecek bir \u015fey katma sorunu do\u011fmu\u015ftur. Bunun i\u00e7in, \u00f6l\u00fcmle birlikte verilen son soluk al\u0131n\u0131p, \u201cya\u015fam solu\u011fu\u201d denerek yaratma i\u015flemi tasar\u0131m\u0131na kat\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Tanr\u0131 suretinde yarat\u0131lma<\/strong>: Ya\u015fam solu\u011funu \u00fcfleyen, bal\u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131 canland\u0131racak bir a\u015fk\u0131n\u00f6zne olaca\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u00fcflenenin de onun solu\u011fundan (ruhundan) olu\u015faca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcp buna inan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Oysa yarat\u0131landa yaratan\u0131n ruhunun bulunmas\u0131, yaratan-yarat\u0131lan farkl\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131 mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na ters d\u00fc\u015fmektedir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu, yaradan\u0131n ruhu \u00fcflenmi\u015f yarat\u0131lan\u0131n, kendisinin de bir yaradan oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebilmesine yol a\u00e7abilecektir.(22)<\/sup> Bunu \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirilen \u201cilk g\u00fcnah\u201d kuram\u0131 \u00fczerinde, b\u00f6yle bir kuram konumuz G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 kurulurken daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcp \u00f6yk\u00fcde yans\u0131t\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, durmayaca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n

Yazg\u0131 kavram\u0131<\/strong>: Yaratan ne yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilir. Onun yarat\u0131s\u0131na neler kat\u0131p neler katmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n bilincinde olaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclecektir. Bu durumda yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n neler yapamay\u0131p neler yapabilece\u011fini de \u00f6ng\u00f6rmesi g\u00fc\u00e7 olmayacakt\u0131r: B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar (yaz\u0131n\u0131n yenilerde bulunmu\u015f olmas\u0131n\u0131n da etkisiyle) \u201cyazg\u0131 tabletleri\u201d alegorisiyle kavramla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Asl\u0131nda yazg\u0131 kavram\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcretili\u015finin, kafadaki bu uslamlama zinciri d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, bireysel ve toplumsal ya\u015famdan esinlenilecek kaynaklar\u0131 vard\u0131r. S\u00fcmer\u2019de yazg\u0131 kavram\u0131, \u00fcreticilere tar\u0131m takvimini kazand\u0131ran dincilerce geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Mevsimleri y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n y\u0131ll\u0131k devinimleri g\u00f6lgeolaylar\u0131na (epifenomenlere) ba\u011flay\u0131p, onlar\u0131 mevsimlerle birlikte \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran S\u00fcmerli dinciler, mevsimlerin (yazg\u0131 gibi) de\u011fi\u015ftirilemez s\u0131ralan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n bilincine erkenden ermi\u015f olmal\u0131lar. \u00d6te yandan, mevsimlerin gelece\u011fi, ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz bir yazg\u0131 gibi toplumun, y\u00f6neticilerin, uyruklar\u0131n gelece\u011fini de (k\u0131tl\u0131k mevsimleri, bolluk mevsimleri olarak) etkileyecektir.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsanlar\u0131n bireysel ya\u015famlar\u0131nda ise, do\u011fum olay\u0131 yaratma (hatta yoktan yarat\u0131lma) d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini esinlendirmi\u015f olabilece\u011fi gibi, \u00f6l\u00fcm ger\u00e7e\u011fi \u201cde\u011fi\u015ftirilemez son\u201d olarak yazg\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 peki\u015ftirmi\u015f olsa gerektir. Bunlar, Enkidu\u2019nun yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131yla ve \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle ilgili anlat\u0131lardan, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131n ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz son olarak duyumsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6l\u00fcm korkusu ile ilgili yaz\u0131lanlardan da \u00e7\u0131karsanabilir.<\/p>\n

\u00d6te yandan yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f mitoslar\u0131ndaki kafada tasarlayarak yaratma d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin rasyonel, neredeyse \u201cbilimsel\u201d denebilecek bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel kayna\u011f\u0131 da bulunmakta. Hem Enuma eli\u015f\u2019te Lullu\u2019nun (insan\u0131n) hem G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 i\u00e7inde Enkidu\u2019nun yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131, tanr\u0131\u00e7alar\u0131n (\u00e7ocuk do\u011furan kad\u0131nlar\u0131nki gibi) eylemleri olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bundan \u00f6te, \u00f6nce kafalar\u0131na tanr\u0131n\u0131n imgesini getirip, sonra bal\u00e7\u0131\u011fa ona benzer bi\u00e7im verdiklerinin anlat\u0131lmas\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r. Bunun kafada tasarlanan bir i\u015fin kafa ve kol eme\u011finin birle\u015ftirilmesiyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi\u011fi \u00fcretim etkinli\u011finin do\u011fru g\u00f6zleminin mitik, sanal bir yans\u0131t\u0131lmas\u0131 oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenebilir.<\/p>\n

Yazg\u0131 kavram\u0131 b\u00f6ylece geli\u015ftirildikten sonra, onun peki\u015ftirilmesinde ger\u00e7ekli\u011fin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n, inan\u00e7lar\u0131n imana d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclece\u011fi denli g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc etkileri olmu\u015ftur. \u00d6l\u00fcm bunlardan biri, belki de birincisidir. Tanr\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc kendilerine ay\u0131r\u0131p (bilen mi var?) insan\u0131 \u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc yaratt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemenin kolayl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn. Destan\u2019da bir\u00e7ok kez G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a \u201carad\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bulamayacaks\u0131n\u201d denmektedir. B\u00f6ylece nedensel bir do\u011fal olay olarak \u00f6l\u00fcm, Tanr\u0131n\u0131n ereksel istenci olarak g\u00f6sterilebilmektedir. Bir kimsenin kas\u0131tl\u0131 olarak bir ba\u015fkas\u0131nca \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesi, kazayla \u00f6lmesi ya da kendini \u00f6ld\u00fcrmesi olgular\u0131n\u0131n o kimse \u00f6l\u00fcp bittikten sonra \u201cka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lamaz yazg\u0131\u201d olarak nitelenmesi b\u00f6yledir.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Kuran\u2019daki Nuh\u2019un G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019ndaki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 Utnapi\u015ftim. Bu kabartma Tufan olay\u0131n\u0131 anlat\u0131yor.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Dinsel ideolojinin \u00e7oktanr\u0131c\u0131 d\u00f6neminde, onun da Enuma eli\u015f\u2019in ve G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn derlenip yaz\u0131ya ge\u00e7irildi\u011fi erken evrelerinde, yarat\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n, tanr\u0131lar\u0131n da (insan\u0131n do\u011fu\u015funa benzetilerek) anas\u0131n\u0131n, babas\u0131n\u0131n, \u00e7ocu\u011funun oldu\u011funun d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmesinin, onlar\u0131n do\u011fumlu olabilece\u011fi gibi \u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc olabilecekleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleriyle yaratan-yarat\u0131lan mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na ters d\u00fc\u015fen yanlar\u0131 vard\u0131. Ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde yarat\u0131c\u0131 tanr\u0131lar\u0131n ve tanr\u0131\u00e7alar\u0131n (kafada yarat\u0131lmalar\u0131nda esinlenilen olgunun bir uzant\u0131s\u0131 olarak) insanlarla cinsel ili\u015fki kurabileceklerinin (\u0130\u015ftar ile G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcndeki gibi) d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmesinin, yaratan-yarat\u0131lan s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131 kafada buland\u0131rmas\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmazd\u0131. Bu bulan\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa y\u00f6neltilen ele\u015ftireler ve \u00f6zele\u015ftiriler ister istemez giderek antropomorfik tanr\u0131 inan\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n ay\u0131klanmas\u0131na ve \u00e7oktanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131ktan tektanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011fa y\u00f6nelinmesine yol a\u00e7acakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ama tanr\u0131 kavram\u0131n\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131nda insandan ve s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 toplumdan esinleni\u015f, tanr\u0131-insan ili\u015fkileri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine tektanr\u0131c\u0131l\u0131ktakinden farkl\u0131 renkler vermi\u015fti. Bunlardan en \u00f6nemlisi, tanr\u0131 a\u015fk\u0131n\u00f6znesinin, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmayan efendi s\u0131n\u0131flar, buyuran \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran y\u00f6neticiler ger\u00e7ekli\u011finden esinlenilerek kurulmu\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bu durumda tanr\u0131 y\u00f6netici d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi de kafalara ters d\u00fc\u015fmeyecektir. S\u00fcmer s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131, uygar toplumunun ba\u015flar\u0131nda (ilerde M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da da g\u00f6r\u00fclece\u011fi gibi) Ur kral mezarlar\u0131nda kral\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcnce, hizmetlerini \u00f6te d\u00fcnyada da s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmeleri i\u00e7in kurban edilen t\u00fcm saray \u00e7evresiyle birlikte g\u00f6m\u00fclmesinin de g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi \u00fczere, bir \u201ctanr\u0131 y\u00f6neticiler\u201d d\u00f6nemi ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131. Ancak Mezopotamya\u2019da, hem hanedanlar\u0131n (M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki gibi) uzun soluklu olmamalar\u0131, hem firavunlar kadar ekonomik g\u00fc\u00e7 toplayamamalar\u0131, tanr\u0131 y\u00f6netici d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinden tanr\u0131 vekili \u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc y\u00f6netici inanc\u0131na kay\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00dc\u00e7te ikisi tanr\u0131 biri insan oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenen G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f bu yolda yar\u0131yoldad\u0131r. \u00d6l\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc i\u00e7ine sindiremeyip tanr\u0131 y\u00f6netici atalar\u0131 gibi \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fck aray\u0131\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Tanr\u0131\u00e7alar\u0131n konumu ve tutumu<\/strong>: Enuma eli\u015f yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f mitosunda oldu\u011fu gibi G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131 i\u00e7inde de tanr\u0131\u00e7alar, tanr\u0131lar\u0131n \u201cyaratma\u201d karar\u0131n\u0131n uygulay\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131 konumunda g\u00f6sterilmi\u015flerdir. Ama her ikisinde de kad\u0131nlar\u0131n tanr\u0131lar\u0131n \u201cyok etme\u201d kararlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131 belirtilmektedir. Bu durumun yorumunu erkek ve kad\u0131n okuyuculara b\u0131rak\u0131yorum. Gene de kendimi, \u201cinsanlar\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n do\u011furmas\u0131 ger\u00e7ekli\u011fini bile tepe takla etmenin yolunun \u2018ama do\u011furan kad\u0131n\u0131 da erkek yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u2019 dercesine, ilk kad\u0131n\u0131n ilk erke\u011fin kaburgas\u0131ndan yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 inanc\u0131 pazarlanmaktad\u0131r\u201d demekten alamayaca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n

Y\u00f6neticiye sa\u011flanan ayr\u0131cal\u0131k ve destek<\/strong>: Dinsel ideolojide y\u00f6neticiye, \u201ctanr\u0131 y\u00f6netici\u201d, \u201ctanr\u0131sal\u201d, \u201ctanr\u0131 soylu\u201d olmaktan tutun, \u201ctanr\u0131 vekili y\u00f6netici\u201d, \u201ctanr\u0131n\u0131n sevgili kulu\u201d; \u201ctanr\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6zc\u00fcs\u00fc\u201d olmaya dek uzanan ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00dc\u00e7te ikisinin tanr\u0131 oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenen G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f \u00f6rne\u011findeki gibi bir tek \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fck d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda y\u00f6neticilere her t\u00fcrl\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel destek sa\u011flanmaktad\u0131r. Bu destek, ahlaks\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131nda, sava\u015f su\u00e7lular\u0131 olmalar\u0131nda, tanr\u0131n\u0131n topraklar\u0131n\u0131, ormanlar\u0131n\u0131 (ki bu kamunun ya da \u00f6teki topluluklar\u0131n mallar\u0131n\u0131 demektir) \u00e7i\u011fneyip ya\u011fmalad\u0131klar\u0131 durumlarda bile \u00e7ekilmemektedir. Destanlarda (dinsel ideolojide) hatta y\u00f6neticilerin bu y\u00f6ndeki eylemleri \u201ckahramanl\u0131k\u201d olarak g\u00f6sterilip \u00f6v\u00fclmektedir. B\u00f6ylece dinsel ideoloji, s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 toplumun bir genel ideolojisi i\u015flevi g\u00f6rmesinden \u00f6te, krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n, egemenli\u011fin, y\u00f6netim bi\u00e7iminin \u201cg\u00f6kten inip\u201d tanr\u0131larca ba\u011f\u0131\u015fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 inanc\u0131yla, bir \u201cy\u00f6netim ideolojisi\u201d hatta \u201chanedan ideolojisi\u201d olarak i\u015fletilmektedir.<\/p>\n

Barbar topluluklara bak\u0131\u015f<\/strong>: \u201cBarbar\u201d kavram\u0131, eski Yunan ve Roma\u2019da t\u00fcretilen anlam\u0131yla \u201ck\u00fclt\u00fcrs\u00fcz, y\u0131k\u0131c\u0131, ya\u011fmalay\u0131c\u0131, ac\u0131mas\u0131z\u201d topluluklar ve ki\u015filer olarak olumsuz anlam\u0131 yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, bilim \u00e7evrelerinde n\u00f6tr bilimsel anlam\u0131yla da kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Bu anlam\u0131yla, \u00fcretime ge\u00e7memi\u015f \u201cyaban\u0131l\u201d (vah\u015fi) topluluklardan farkl\u0131 olarak, hayvansal ya da bitkisel besin \u00fcretimine ge\u00e7mi\u015f, ama uygar toplumdaki gibi zanaat\u00e7\u0131 \u00fcretimine (kentli ya\u015fam bi\u00e7imine) ge\u00e7memi\u015f, ge\u00e7ememi\u015f topluluklar\u0131 nitelemede ba\u015fvurulmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019nda Enkidu ve Humbaba ki\u015filiklerinde temsil edilen barbar topluluklar, (Humbaba gibi ya\u011fmaya, s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye u\u011fray\u0131p buna kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmalar\u0131 durumunda bile) d\u00fczeni bozucu k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fck kaynaklar\u0131 olarak canavarla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ya da (Enkidu \u00f6rne\u011finde g\u00f6r\u00fclece\u011fi gibi) yaban ya\u015fam\u0131ndan al\u0131n\u0131p, uygar toplumun ayak i\u015flerini g\u00f6recek kimseler, en iyi durumda, \u00f6teki barbarlarla kavgalar\u0131nda kullan\u0131lacak sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n

Ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan par\u00e7an\u0131n \u00f6nemi: Yukar\u0131daki genel durumun ve \u00f6zel ba\u011flam\u0131n \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yeni ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131p \u00e7evrilen tablet par\u00e7as\u0131nda yaz\u0131lanlar, Destan\u2019a egemen genel anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirecek nitelik ve g\u00fc\u00e7te de\u011fildir. \u00d6yk\u00fcye bir de kaynaklar\u0131 uygar toplum y\u00f6neticilerince ya\u011fmalan\u0131rken \u015fefleri ve halk\u0131 k\u0131y\u0131lan topluluklar a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bakan bir tablet kopyac\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n araya s\u0131k\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131verdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri olarak kalmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) Bkz. Ferhat Kaya, \u201cYeni bir insan t\u00fcr\u00fc Homo naledi\u201d, Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em>, 140 (Ekim 2015) s.46-50 ve s.51: Metin \u00d6zbek, \u201cHomo naledi bir insan t\u00fcr\u00fc m\u00fc?\u201d.<\/p>\n

2) F. N. H. Al-Rawi ve A. R. George, \u201cBack to the Cedar Forest: The Beginning and end of tablet V of the Standart Babylonian Epic of G\u0131lgame\u0161\u201d, (JCS) Journal of Classical Studies<\/em>, 66 (2014), s.69-90; k\u0131sa ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla, \u201cTablet V of the SB [Standart Babylonian] Epic of G\u0131lgame\u0161)<\/p>\n

3) \u0130lgin\u00e7 bir durumla, benzeri bir yak\u0131nmayla Kutsal Kitap<\/em> (2001 Yeni \u00c7eviri) \u201cBirinci Samuel\u201d kitab\u0131, 8\/10-18\u2019de kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmaktay\u0131z: \u0130brani halk\u0131 bir dinci y\u00f6netici olan Samuel\u2019den ba\u015flar\u0131na sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fctecek bir sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 (asker) kral koymas\u0131 i\u00e7in Yehova ile konu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 ister. Samuel bunun \u201cRab\u2019b\u0131n\u201d (dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Rab\u2019b\u0131n s\u00f6zc\u00fcs\u00fc olan kendisinin) istenmedi\u011fi anlam\u0131na gelece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnerek Rab\u2019be bildirme i\u015fini savsaklar. Ama \u00fcstelemeleri \u00fczerine, Rab Yehova\u2019n\u0131n yan\u0131t\u0131 diye yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir a\u00e7\u0131klamada bulunur: \u201c… o\u011fullar\u0131n\u0131z\u0131 kendine al\u0131p cenk arabalar\u0131 \u00fczerine ve atl\u0131lar\u0131 aras\u0131na koyacak… ve kullar\u0131n\u0131zla cariyelerinizi ve en se\u00e7me gen\u00e7lerinizi … al\u0131p, onlar\u0131 i\u015fe ko\u015facak… ve siz onun kullar\u0131 olacaks\u0131n\u0131z. Ve kendiniz i\u00e7in se\u00e7mi\u015f olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z kral\u0131n\u0131z y\u00fcz\u00fcnden o g\u00fcn feryad edeceksiniz. Ve Rab o g\u00fcn size cevap vermeyecek.\u201d Bununla Uruk halk\u0131n\u0131n iste\u011fi aras\u0131ndaki fark, tanr\u0131 Enlil\u2019in, Uruk halk\u0131n\u0131n yak\u0131nmalar\u0131na yan\u0131t verip, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019\u0131 durdurmas\u0131 i\u00e7in Enkidu\u2019yu yollad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yaz\u0131l\u0131 olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

4) Yorumumun t\u00fcm\u00fc ve dayanaklar\u0131 i\u00e7in bkz. Al\u00e2eddin \u015eenel, Kemirgenlerden S\u00f6m\u00fcrgenlere \u0130nsanl\u0131k Tarihi<\/em>, Ankara, 2014, \u0130mge Kitabevi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s.419: \u201cG\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f destan\u0131\u201d ve s.386: \u201cY\u00f6netimin dincilerden sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lara ge\u00e7i\u015fi.\u201d<\/p>\n

5) Kr\u015f. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, \u00d6ns\u00f6z ve \u0130ngilizceye \u00e7ev. N. K. Sandars, T\u00fcrk\u00e7eye \u00e7ev. Sevin Kutlu ve Teoman Dural\u0131, \u0130stanbul, 1973, H\u00fcrriyet Yay\u0131nlar\u0131; N. K. Sandars (\u0130ngilizceye \u00e7eviren ve Sunan) The Epic of G\u0131lgamesh<\/em>, Middlesex, 1973, Penguin Classics; Bilgin Adal\u0131, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em> (Gen\u00e7ler \u0130\u00e7in) \u0130stanbul, 2009, YKY, resimleyen Mustafa Delio\u011flu.<\/p>\n

6) G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, s.63; Bu betimleme, \u00e7oktanr\u0131l\u0131 dinlerden tektanr\u0131l\u0131 dine ge\u00e7ip onun kutsal kitaplar\u0131 kanal\u0131yla zaman\u0131m\u0131za kadar gelebilmi\u015ftir: Ger\u00e7ekten, Kutsal Kitap<\/em>, Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f, 1\/26\u2019daki (eski \u00e7evirideki adlar\u0131yla, Kitab\u0131 Mukaddes<\/em>, Tekvin 1\/26\u2019daki) \u201cTanr\u0131 insan\u0131 kendi suretimizde, kendimize benzer yaratal\u0131m\u201d dedi; 2\/7 \u201cRab Tanr\u0131 Adem\u2019i topraktan yaratt\u0131 ve burnuna ya\u015fam solu\u011fu \u00fcfledi\u201d ile Kur\u2019an-\u0131 Kerim<\/em> (Diyanet yay\u0131n\u0131) i\u00e7inde insan\u0131n, Kehf 37 (topraktan) S\u00e2ff\u00e2t 11 (yap\u0131\u015fkan bir \u00e7amurdan) Rahman 14 (pi\u015fmi\u015f \u00e7amura benzer bir bal\u00e7\u0131ktan) yaratmas\u0131 ve Secde 7-9\u2019daki \u201cO (Allah) ki, yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 her \u015feyi g\u00fczel yapm\u0131\u015f ve ilk ba\u015fta insan\u0131 \u00e7amurdan yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sonra onun z\u00fcrriyetini dayan\u0131ks\u0131z bir suyun \u00f6z\u00fcnden t\u00fcretmi\u015ftir. Sonra onu tamamlay\u0131p, \u015fekillendirmi\u015f, ona kendi ruhundan \u00fcflemi\u015ftir\u201d s\u00f6zleri ku\u015fkuya yer b\u0131rakmayacak a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131kla bunu g\u00f6stermektedir. Daha do\u011frusu, hepsinin kayna\u011f\u0131nda, \u201cEnki ile Ninmah\u201d mitosunun tabletlerinden haberli oldu\u011fumuz S\u00fcmer yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f mitosu bulunmaktad\u0131r; bkz. Samuel Henry Hooke, Ortado\u011fu Mitolojisi<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Al\u00e2eddin \u015eenel, Ankara, 2015, \u0130mge Kitabevi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s.30: \u201c\u0130nsan\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131\u201d.<\/p>\n

7) Hooke, Ortado\u011fu Mitolojisi<\/em>, s.52\u2019deki, bu deyi\u015f ile Kutsal Kitap<\/em>, \u201cYarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u201d 3\u2019te Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Adem ile Havva\u2019ya bah\u00e7esindeki Ya\u015fam A\u011fac\u0131 ile \u0130yiyle K\u00f6t\u00fcy\u00fc Bilme A\u011fac\u0131 meyvelerini yemelerini yasaklamas\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki benzerli\u011fe tak\u0131l\u0131r. Buradaki, Tanr\u0131n\u0131n \u201cyerseniz \u00f6l\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz\u201d demesine kar\u015f\u0131n, Y\u0131lan\u2019\u0131n \u201ckesinlikle \u00f6lmezsiniz… \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Tanr\u0131 biliyor ki, o a\u011fac\u0131n meyvesini yedi\u011finizde g\u00f6zleriniz a\u00e7\u0131lacak ve iyiyi k\u00f6t\u00fcy\u00fc bilerek tanr\u0131 gibi olacaks\u0131n\u0131z\u201d s\u00f6zleri, Tanr\u0131n\u0131n, yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 insan\u0131n kendisi gibi \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fcz ve bilge olmas\u0131n\u0131 istemedi\u011fini \u00fcst\u00fc \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fc olarak ortaya koymaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

8) S\u00f6z konusu d\u00fc\u015flerini annesi Tanr\u0131\u00e7a Ninsun\u2019a anlatan G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f, birinde, g\u00f6kten d\u00fc\u015fen [Enkidu\u2019nun gelece\u011finin habercisi olan] bir g\u00f6kta\u015f\u0131na, ikincisinde gene g\u00f6kten d\u00fc\u015fen ama bu kez [Enkidu\u2019nun sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve a\u011fa\u00e7 kesme yetisini simgeliyor olabilecek] baltaya, bir kad\u0131na duydu\u011funa benzer istekle ve bir kad\u0131n\u0131 sever gibi sevdi\u011fini, sonra da baltay\u0131 beline takt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemektedir; bkz. G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, s.71 ve 72).<\/p>\n

9) G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, s.77.<\/p>\n

10) Bu g\u00f6revlendirme, Tevrat<\/em> ba\u015f\u0131nda dillendirilen Rab Tanr\u0131 – kul insan ili\u015fkisi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olup, \u00f6nemi, yaz\u0131n\u0131n \u201cgenel yorum\u201d sat\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde a\u00e7\u0131klanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

11) Bu betimleme, Enuma eli\u015f\u2019te Marduk\u2019un Tiamat\u2019\u0131 d\u00f6rt amans\u0131z yel silah\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6nderip, g\u00f6vdesini onlarla \u015fi\u015firdikten sonra okla vuru\u015funu \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131r; kr\u015f. Enuma Eli\u015f<\/em>, s.63, IV. tablet 96.-103. sat\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n

12) G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, s.88.<\/p>\n

13) K\u00f6lelik kavram\u0131n\u0131n suland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p, k\u00f6lelik kurumunun, tanr\u0131sal yazg\u0131 gere\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclerek onaylanmas\u0131n\u0131n felsefesini yapan Stoac\u0131 Roma d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerinin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne (bkz. Al\u00e2eddin \u015eenel, Siyasal D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler Tarihi<\/em>, Ankara, 2014, Bilim ve Sanat Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s.221\u2019deki Senaca\u2019n\u0131n \u201ci\u00e7 k\u00f6lelik\u201d, \u201cyazg\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6leli\u011fi\u201d kavramlar\u0131) benzer bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyle ilk s\u0131n\u0131fl\u0131 toplumlar\u0131n yaz\u0131n\u0131nda kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmak anlaml\u0131d\u0131r. Anlam\u0131, dinsel ideolojinin s\u00fcreklili\u011finin ve s\u0131n\u0131fsal niteli\u011finin kavranmas\u0131nda ayd\u0131nlat\u0131c\u0131 olmas\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

14) Mant\u0131ksal tutars\u0131z, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ak\u0131ll\u0131 olan yazg\u0131dan kurtulabilirmi\u015f gibi \u00fcst\u00fc \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fc bir mesaj verilmektedir; oysa ister ak\u0131ls\u0131z ister ak\u0131ll\u0131 olsun yazg\u0131dan kimse kurtulamaz. Burada bu kadar; ama bu konu \u201cgenel yorum\u201d alt\u0131nda ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 de\u011ferlendirilmektedir.<\/p>\n

15) Al-Rawi ve A. R. George, \u201cTablet V of the SB Epic of G\u0131lgame\u0161\u201d, s.74-75.<\/p>\n

16) Destan\u2019\u0131n yeni bulunup \u00e7evrilen par\u00e7as\u0131nda da (s.81\u2019de, 267-271\u2019de) Enkidu\u2019nun G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f\u2019a \u201cEn bilge Enki \u00f6\u011frenmeden ve b\u00fcy\u00fck tanr\u0131lar Nippur\u2019da Enlil, Larsa\u2019da \u015eama\u015f bize k\u0131zmadan \u00f6ld\u00fcr onu\u201d [Humbaba\u2019y\u0131] dedi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

17) Bkz. Al-Rawi ve George, \u201cTablet V of the SB Epic of G\u0131lgame\u0161\u201d JCS<\/em>, s.75.<\/p>\n

18) Bu bana, feodal d\u00fczende soylu efendinin o\u011fluna arkada\u015fl\u0131k etmekle g\u00f6revlendirilen serf \u00e7ocu\u011funun, soylu o\u011flu bir su\u00e7 i\u015fledi\u011finde onun yerine kam\u00e7\u0131lanmas\u0131 gelene\u011finden gidilerek serf o\u011flunun \u201cwhip son\u201d (\u015famar o\u011flan\u0131) olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 an\u0131msatt\u0131. Bu kavram, \u00e7e\u015fitli s\u00f6zl\u00fcklerde, hatta ne yaz\u0131k ki elimin alt\u0131ndaki en geni\u015f s\u00f6zl\u00fck olan Webster\u2019s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language<\/em> (1989 bask\u0131s\u0131) i\u00e7inde bile verilmiyor.<\/p>\n

19) Bununla Eski D\u00fcnya uygarl\u0131klar\u0131ndan hi\u00e7bir etki al\u0131nmaks\u0131z\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f Yeni D\u00fcnya (Maya, Aztek gibi) uygarl\u0131klar\u0131ndaki dinsel nitelikli top oyununda sava\u015f tutsaklar\u0131 tak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n soylular bak\u0131m\u0131na yenildi\u011finde y\u00fcreklerinin s\u00f6k\u00fcl\u00fcp G\u00fcne\u015f Tanr\u0131\u2019ya sunulu\u015fu aras\u0131ndaki benzerlik \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r; bkz, \u015eenel, \u0130nsanl\u0131k Tarihi<\/em>, s.956: \u201cAztek tanr\u0131lar\u0131 ve kurbanlar\u0131\u201d<\/p>\n

20) N. K. Sandars, \u201cGiri\u015f\u201d, G\u0131lgam\u0131\u015f Destan\u0131<\/em>, s.20.<\/p>\n

21) Kr\u015f. Kutsal Kitap <\/em>(2001 Yeni \u00c7eviri) Eski Antla\u015fma, \u201cYarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u201d 6\/1-13; \u00f6zellikle 13.<\/p>\n

22) Bu konuda, evrimci Katolik filozof T. Francouer\u2019nin \u015fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi \u00f6rnek verilebilir: \u201cHer zaman ve \u00e7o\u011fu kez y\u00fcrekten inanmaks\u0131z\u0131n, Tanr\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan, Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n suretinde yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131, Tanr\u0131 suretinde ve Tanr\u0131 benzeri varl\u0131klar oldu\u011fumuzu s\u00f6yledik durduk. Tanr\u0131, \u2018insan\u0131 kendi suretimizde, kendimize benzer olarak yapal\u0131m\u2019 dedi s\u00f6zleri, mant\u0131ksal olarak, insan\u0131n, do\u011fas\u0131 gere\u011fi, Yaradan\u2019\u0131 gibi bir yarat\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011fu anlam\u0131na gelir. Ya da hi\u00e7 de\u011filse, hu\u015fu yarat\u0131c\u0131 bir ger\u00e7ek olarak, ger\u00e7ek anlamda bir yarat\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemeye var\u0131r. Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yaln\u0131zca yard\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131, k\u00e2hyas\u0131 ya da emanet\u00e7isi de\u011filiz. Biz insanlar Tanr\u0131sal buyru\u011fun bir gere\u011fi olarak, birer yarat\u0131c\u0131y\u0131z. \u00d6yleyse, bug\u00fcn ya da yak\u0131nda, gelece\u011fin insan\u0131n\u0131 yaratabilece\u011fimizi \u00f6\u011frenince neden \u00fcrperiyoruz? Neden [biyoteknolojiyle canl\u0131lar\u0131n genlerini etkilemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak – A.\u015e.] \u2018Tanr\u0131 rol\u00fc oynama\u2019 i\u015fine kalkt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, bir bilim adam\u0131 ya da doktor kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda deh\u015fete kap\u0131l\u0131p onu su\u00e7luyoruz? Bunun nedeni, Sami k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcndeki [Kitab\u0131 Mukaddes<\/em>\u2019deki] yarad\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n, insanla i\u015fbirli\u011fi i\u00e7inde s\u00fcr\u00fcp giden etkinli\u011fi oldu\u011fu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 unutmu\u015f olmam\u0131z m\u0131d\u0131r? Yaratmak, bizim, bize Tanr\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan verilen rol\u00fcm\u00fczd\u00fcr ve bize d\u00fc\u015fen g\u00f6rev, daha tamamlanmam\u0131\u015f, h\u00e2l\u00e2 evrim g\u00f6stermekte olan insan do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131 yaratadurmakt\u0131r.\u201d (bkz. Earl D. Hanson ve Sandra Panem (der.) Biyoteknoloji Genetik M\u00fchendisli\u011fi ve \u0130nsanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n Gelece\u011fi<\/em>, der. ve \u00e7ev. Dr. Erhan G\u00f6ksel ve Al\u00e2eddin \u015eenel, Ankara, 1987, V Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s.64 i\u00e7indeki al\u0131nt\u0131.)<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

S\u00f6z konusu tabletin, yaln\u0131zca nicel bir bo\u015flu\u011fu doldurmas\u0131ndan \u00f6te, destan\u0131n, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla derlendi\u011fi\/yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n insan\u0131n\u0131n, yabanc\u0131 bir \u00fclkenin ormanlar\u0131n\u0131n kaba g\u00fc\u00e7le ya\u011fmalanmas\u0131, bek\u00e7isinin kafas\u0131n\u0131n kesilip tanr\u0131ya sunulmas\u0131 (bir yandan \u00f6v\u00fcl\u00fcrken) \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen yeni par\u00e7ada duyulan su\u00e7luluk duygusunun dile getirilmesi gibi nitel bir yenilik i\u00e7erdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Toplumumuz i\u00e7in ayr\u0131ca g\u00fcncel \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlara yol a\u00e7abilecek nitelikte: Yerle bir edildi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":492,"featured_media":16850,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[178,211,1464,222],"tags":[2011,2010,230,339],"class_list":["post-16840","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-141-sayi","category-antropoloji","category-dosya","category-tarih","tag-destanlar","tag-gilgamis-destani","tag-insanlik-tarihi","tag-mitoloji"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t