{"id":17910,"date":"2017-10-01T16:33:40","date_gmt":"2017-10-01T13:33:40","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=17910"},"modified":"2023-03-10T18:39:40","modified_gmt":"2023-03-10T15:39:40","slug":"insan-marifetiyle-deprem-tetiklenir-mi-3-yeraltina-kutle-yigma-ve-nukleer-denemeler","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2017\/10\/01\/insan-marifetiyle-deprem-tetiklenir-mi-3-yeraltina-kutle-yigma-ve-nukleer-denemeler","title":{"rendered":"\u0130nsan marifetiyle deprem tetiklenir mi? – 3\u00a0Yeralt\u0131na k\u00fctle y\u0131\u011fma ve n\u00fckleer denemeler"},"content":{"rendered":"

Do\u011falgaz, petrol ve maden \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda \u00fcretimi art\u0131rma ama\u00e7l\u0131 kaya \u00e7atlatma i\u00e7in yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 su ve s\u0131v\u0131lar\u0131n veya at\u0131k su, s\u0131cak su, CO2<\/sub>, hidrojen gaz\u0131 ve do\u011falgaz depolama s\u0131ras\u0131nda ilgili b\u00f6lge yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda tetiklenmi\u015f depremler olu\u015ftu\u011fu m\u00fchendislik d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da yay\u0131nla ortaya konulmu\u015ftur. \u00d6te yandan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir n\u00fckleer patlama, bulundu\u011fu b\u00f6lgede yerkabu\u011funda var olan do\u011fal tektonik gerilmelerin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc etkileyebilir.<\/em><\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 17. Farkl\u0131 69 proje i\u00e7in baz\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f maksimum deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri ile yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131n\u0131n toplam hacmi aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki. Kesikli \u00e7izgi ise kuramsal olarak olas\u0131 en b\u00fcy\u00fck deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fcklerinin s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. (6)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Do\u011falgaz, petrol ve maden \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda \u00fcretimi art\u0131rma ama\u00e7l\u0131 kaya \u00e7atlatma i\u00e7in yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 su ve s\u0131v\u0131lar\u0131n veya at\u0131k su, s\u0131cak su, CO2<\/sub>, hidrojen gaz\u0131 ve do\u011falgaz depolama s\u0131ras\u0131nda ilgili b\u00f6lge yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda tetiklenmi\u015f depremler olu\u015ftu\u011fu m\u00fchendislik d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da yay\u0131nla ortaya konulmu\u015ftur. Bu t\u00fcr end\u00fcstriyel etkinliklerin tetiklenmi\u015f depremselli\u011fe neden oldu\u011funa dair literat\u00fcre ge\u00e7mi\u015f 180 proje say\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. (3) \u015eekil 17\u2019de literat\u00fcre ge\u00e7mi\u015f baz\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f maksimum deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri ile 69 proje etkinlikleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131n\u0131n toplam hacmi aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki g\u00f6sterilmektedir. Yukar\u0131da sayd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z end\u00fcstriyel etkinlikler nedeniyle \u00f6rne\u011fin merkezi ve do\u011fu ABD\u2019de 1967-2000 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 3\u2019den b\u00fcy\u00fck y\u0131lda ortalama 21 deprem olurken, 2010-2012 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda bu say\u0131 100\u2019\u00fc ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

S\u0131v\u0131 basma uygulamalar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Askeri at\u0131k<\/strong>: Bu konuyla ilgili literat\u00fcrde yaln\u0131zca bir \u00f6rnek vard\u0131r. O da ABD\u2019de Ordu M\u00fchendisleri Birli\u011fi\u2019nin yerin derinliklerine kimyasal kirlili\u011fi olan s\u0131v\u0131y\u0131 depolamak amac\u0131yla Kayal\u0131k da\u011flar\u0131ndaki cephanelik b\u00f6lgesinde 3,7 km derinlikte \u00e7atlakl\u0131 kaya ortama a\u00e7\u0131lan sondaj \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ile ba\u015flayan tetiklenmi\u015f depremselliktir. Sondaj 1962 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f, 7,2 MPa bas\u0131n\u00e7 alt\u0131nda 1966 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar yeralt\u0131ndaki \u00e7atlakl\u0131 ortama 625.000 ton askeri at\u0131k s\u0131v\u0131 bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. S\u0131v\u0131 basma olay\u0131n\u0131n hemen ard\u0131ndan 1967 y\u0131l\u0131nda b\u00f6lgede 5 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem olmu\u015f ve Denver\u2019de hasarlar yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. At\u0131k su basma i\u015flemleri durduktan sonra depremsellik bir s\u00fcre s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f, 1980\u2019den sonra durmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 18. Tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik say\u0131s\u0131 ile ABD Kolorado Rocky Da\u011flar\u0131\u2019ndaki askeri at\u0131\u011f\u0131n ayl\u0131k hacmi. Bir galon 3,7854 (ABD) litredir. (42)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

At\u0131k su\/s\u0131v\u0131 basma<\/strong>: Yeralt\u0131nda madencilik, petrol ve do\u011falgaz \u00fcretiminden ve hidrolik \u00e7atlatma\/k\u0131rma i\u015flemleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda elde edilen ve i\u00e7erisinde y\u00fczde 20 oran\u0131nda hidrokarbon (gaz-petrol) bulunan at\u0131k suyun yeralt\u0131ndaki bas\u0131nc\u0131 dengeleme ve \u00fcretimi art\u0131rma ama\u00e7l\u0131 tekrar yeralt\u0131nda bas\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda olu\u015fan fiziksel ili\u015fkilerin ve tetiklenmi\u015f depremselli\u011fin bilimsel \u00f6zellikleri giderek daha iyi anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Yeralt\u0131na su\/s\u0131v\u0131 basarken olu\u015fan tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olay say\u0131s\u0131, 27 adedi ABD\u2019de olmak \u00fczere Kanada, \u00c7in ve \u0130talya\u2019da toplam 33 adettir. (3) Bu olaylardan en ilginci ABD Kolorado Paradox Vadisi\u2019nde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan durumdur. Burada 4800 metre derinlikteki bir kuyudan y\u00fcksek miktarda tuzlu at\u0131k su yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ama\u00e7, y\u00fcksek oranda tuz kar\u0131\u015fan ve Kolorado Nehri\u2019ne akan Dolores Nehri\u2019nin tuzlulu\u011funu azaltmakt\u0131r. Bu tuzlulu\u011fu azaltmak i\u00e7in b\u00f6lgede dokuz tane sondaj vas\u0131tas\u0131yla yerden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan tuzlu su 35 MPa\u2019l\u0131k bir bas\u0131n\u00e7la tek bir at\u0131k su kuyusuna enjekte edilmi\u015ftir. (43) Bu i\u015flem 1996\u2019dan beri s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclmektedir. 2000\u2019li y\u0131llarda b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 4.3 olan deprem dahil olmak \u00fczere, izleyen y\u0131llarda 5700\u2019den fazla k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem oldu\u011fu tahmin edilmektedir. Tetiklenmi\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck depremlerin merkezlerinin \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu at\u0131k su kuyular\u0131ndan 10 km\u2019den daha uzaktayken baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 25 km ve daha uzakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u00c7in\u2019de Sichuan havzas\u0131ndaki Rongchang sahas\u0131nda y\u00fcksek miktarda at\u0131k su yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. 1989 y\u0131l\u0131nda at\u0131k su basma i\u015flemi ba\u015flad\u0131ktan iki ay sonra en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 5.2 olan depremden ba\u015fka 32.000 adet k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem tetiklenmi\u015ftir. Bu olay temel kaya i\u00e7erisindeki bir ters fay\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7irmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Son y\u0131llarda ABD\u2019de Oklahoma tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik konusunda en fazla g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpan b\u00f6lge olmu\u015ftur. Yayg\u0131n bi\u00e7imde petrol \u00fcretimi yap\u0131lan bu b\u00f6lgede \u00fcretim etkinlikleri 1927 y\u0131l\u0131ndan bu yana s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclmektedir. B\u00f6lgede 1952 y\u0131l\u0131nda 5.6 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki Reno depreminin petrol\/do\u011falgaz \u00fcretimini artt\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kuyulara bas\u0131lan suyun faylar\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7irmesi ile ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi belirtilmi\u015ftir. (44) Ancak petrol verimini art\u0131rma yolunda geli\u015fmi\u015f sondaj tekniklerinin t\u00fcr\u00fc ve sondaj say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131yla tetiklenmi\u015f deprem say\u0131s\u0131 da h\u0131zla artmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Oklahoma ve \u00e7evresinde do\u011fal deprem yaratacak etkin faylar oldu\u011fu bilinmektedir. B\u00f6lgedeki Meers fay\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fal yolla 6.5-7.0 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde deprem olu\u015fturma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 3500 y\u0131ll\u0131k bir d\u00f6ng\u00fcye sahiptir. (45) Oklahoma b\u00f6lgesinde 7000 civar\u0131nda kuyudan petrol \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda elde edilen tuzlu ve di\u011fer at\u0131k su\/s\u0131v\u0131lar\u0131n yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lmas\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik konusunu giderek artan bir sorun haline getirmi\u015ftir. Su basma etkinliklerinin artmas\u0131na paralel olarak 2008\u2019den beri h\u0131zl\u0131 bir tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik art\u0131\u015f\u0131 ya\u015fanmaktad\u0131r. (\u015eekil 19) \u015eubat 2010 tarihinde Praque kentinde 4.1 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckle ba\u015flayan deprem etkinli\u011fi 2011 Kas\u0131m ay\u0131nda 5.0, 5.7 ve 5.0 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki depremlerle s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu depremlerle ili\u015fkili olarak 1183 adet art\u00e7\u0131 deprem olmu\u015ftur. Yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar depremlerin \u00f6nemli bir \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011funun etkin faylar b\u00f6lgesinden \u00e7ok petrol \u00fcretim alanlar\u0131nda yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 19. 1975 y\u0131l\u0131ndan 2014 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar ABD Oklahoma\u2019da kaydedilen depremlerin; a) b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri 2.5 ve daha fazla olan depremlerin katlamal\u0131 say\u0131s\u0131 ve b) t\u00fcm depremlerin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fcklerine g\u00f6re etkinli\u011fi. (45)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Petrol \u00fcretimini art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in su\/s\u0131v\u0131 basma<\/strong>: Petrol \u00fcretimini art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in petrol haznesine (rezervuar) tuzlu su veya di\u011fer kimyasal i\u00e7erikli s\u0131v\u0131lar bas\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr petrol \u00fcretim i\u015flemine \u201cgeli\u015ftirilmi\u015f petrol \u00fcretimi\u201d denir. Bu i\u015flem s\u0131ras\u0131nda tetiklenmi\u015f deprem etkinli\u011fi ba\u015flamaktad\u0131r. Ancak petrol \u00e7ekimi de genellikle e\u015f zamanl\u0131 yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in olu\u015fan tetiklenmi\u015f depremselli\u011fin hangi i\u015flemle ili\u015fkili oldu\u011fu konusunda belirsizlikler de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. Petrol \u00fcretimine y\u00f6nelik hazneye s\u0131v\u0131 basma ve tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik ili\u015fkisi konusunda d\u00fcnyada 38 olay g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. Bu olaylar\u0131n 24 tanesi ABD\u2019de, di\u011ferleri Kanada, \u00c7in, Danimarka, Fransa, Kuveyt, Romanya, Rusya ve T\u00fcrkmenistan\u2019dad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Kaliforniya\u2019da 1983\u2019de 6.2 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki Coalinga depremi, 1985\u2019de 6.1 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki Kettleman North Dome ve 1987\u2019de 5.9 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki Montebello depremlerinin ana nedeninin b\u00f6lgedeki petrol kuyular\u0131na bas\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131yla ilgili oldu\u011fu \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rnek de Los Angeles havzas\u0131nda yer alan Newport-Inglewood fay ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n\u0131n oldu\u011fu yere yak\u0131n Wilmington petrol sahas\u0131ndaki 3 milyar varillik hazneden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan 2,7 milyar varillik petrol\u00fcn b\u00f6lgede \u00e7ok say\u0131da kuvvetli hasar yap\u0131c\u0131 deprem tetikledi\u011fi olayd\u0131r. Buna g\u00f6re 1933 y\u0131l\u0131nda Kaliforniya Long Beach\u2019de ya\u015fanan 6.3 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki deprem ile 1947-1961 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda kaydedilen \u00e7ok say\u0131da kuvvetli depremin a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 petrol \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131yla ili\u015fkisi \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. (46)<\/p>\n

Geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f jeotermal sistem (EGS)<\/strong>: Ge\u00e7mi\u015f y\u0131llarda jeotermal alanlarda y\u00fczeye yak\u0131n veya kendi bas\u0131nc\u0131yla yery\u00fcz\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131kan geleneksel hidrotermal kaynaklar yayg\u0131n ve etkili bir \u015fekilde kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu kaynaklar\u0131n kapasiteleri ve debileri elektrik \u00fcretimi veya di\u011fer end\u00fcstriyel giri\u015fimler i\u00e7in s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r. Bunun yerine derinlerde saptanan s\u0131cak kuru\/sert kaya delinerek ve i\u00e7erisine y\u00fcksek bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 su bas\u0131p \u0131s\u0131tt\u0131ktan sonra kullan\u0131larak \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck elektrik \u00fcretim kapasitesi yarat\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Yeralt\u0131ndaki s\u0131cak ortam bir \u0131s\u0131 pompas\u0131 gibi kullan\u0131l\u0131r. 21. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda g\u00fcndeme gelen ve Geli\u015fmi\u015f Jeotermal Sistem (EGS) olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan bu teknoloji g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde giderek yayg\u0131nla\u015fmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Y\u00f6ntem, s\u0131cakl\u0131klar\u0131n 100\u00b0 C\u2019den y\u00fcksek oldu\u011fu g\u00f6zeneksiz kaya katman\u0131na en az 3 kilometre derinlikte bir sondaj kuyusu a\u00e7may\u0131, bu kuyudan yeralt\u0131na y\u00fcksek bas\u0131n\u00e7ta su basmay\u0131 i\u00e7erir. (\u015eekil 20) S\u0131cak kaya ortam\u0131na bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 su bas\u0131l\u0131r ve kaya \u00e7atlat\u0131l\u0131r. \u00c7atlayan ve g\u00f6zenekli\u011fi artan ortam i\u00e7inde \u0131s\u0131nan su y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131klarda yery\u00fcz\u00fcne al\u0131n\u0131r ve buhar ve s\u0131cak su yoluyla t\u00fcrbinlerde elektrik \u00fcretilir. Bir k\u00fcbik kilometreden daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ge\u00e7irgen kaya haznesi olu\u015fturduktan sonra, \u00e7atlat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ortam boyunca s\u0131v\u0131lar dola\u015ft\u0131r\u0131larak kaya k\u00fctlesinden s\u0131cak suyu \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in ek sondajlar a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131r. Jeotermal Enerji Santral\u0131 (JES) olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan bu end\u00fcstriyel etkinlik s\u00fcrerken \u00e7atlat\u0131lan ve ge\u00e7irgenli\u011fi artan yeralt\u0131nda do\u011fal gerilme dengeleri bozuldu\u011fu ve g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131 artt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in \u00e7ok say\u0131da ufak deprem tetiklenir. \u00dcretim ortam\u0131n\u0131n jeolojik ve jeofiziksel \u00f6zelliklerine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak tetiklenen depremlerin say\u0131s\u0131 ve b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri de\u011fi\u015fir. \u00c7ok say\u0131da JES i\u015fletilen \u00fclkelerde, \u00f6zellikle depremselli\u011fi y\u00fcksek yerlerde olu\u015fan hasar yap\u0131c\u0131 ve rahats\u0131z edici depremler nedeniyle bu konu giderek teknik ve b\u00fcrokratik sorunlar yaratmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 20. Do\u011fal jeotermal kaynak sisteminde (hidro-termal) ve geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f jeotermal sistem (EGS) yoluyla (petro-termal) yap\u0131lan jeotermal \u00fcretim sisteminin kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 g\u00f6sterimi. EGS yoluyla en az 3000 metredeki kristalin s\u0131cak kaya bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 suyla \u00e7atlat\u0131l\u0131p i\u00e7inde \u0131s\u0131t\u0131lan su yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Daha sonra kullan\u0131lan bu su so\u011fuyunca ba\u015fka bir sondajdan jeotermal kaynak b\u00f6lgesine bas\u0131l\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece yeralt\u0131ndaki kaynakta bir d\u00f6ng\u00fc (sirk\u00fclasyon) ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilir. Yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f suyun miktar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fck\u00e7e yeralt\u0131nda geni\u015f bir alana s\u0131zan su gerilme dengelerini daha fazla ve yayg\u0131n olarak bozdu\u011fundan tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik artar. Bir\u00e7ok \u00fclkede deprem kay\u0131t cihazlar\u0131 ile izlenen tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 derinlerdeki s\u0131cak kaya haznesinin uzan\u0131m\u0131, kapasitesi ve hasar yap\u0131c\u0131 deprem tetikleme durumu hakk\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bilgiler verir. (47)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

EGS tekni\u011fi kuramsal olarak neredeyse s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z kayna\u011f\u0131 kullanarak b\u00fcy\u00fck miktarda alternatif elektrik enerji \u00fcretme kapasitesine sahiptir. 2006\u2019da ABD Cambridge\u2019deki Massachusetts Teknoloji Enstit\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019nde (MIT) bir uzmanlar paneli, EGS\u2019nin 2050 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar ABD\u2019de 100.000 megawatt elektrik sa\u011flayabilece\u011fini (ulusal kapasitenin yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 10\u2019u) tahmin etmi\u015ftir. (39) Y\u00f6ntemin dezavantajlar\u0131ndan biri, tetiklenmi\u015f depremlere neden olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Y\u00fczeyde duyulabilecek, hatta yap\u0131lara hasar verebilecek mikro-depremler tetiklenmektedir. Ayr\u0131ca yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan y\u00fcksek miktarda s\u0131v\u0131n\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki etkin faylar\u0131 zaman\u0131ndan \u00f6nce harekete ge\u00e7irerek daha b\u00fcy\u00fck depremlere neden olabilece\u011fi tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u0130lk modern EGS projesi 1987\u2019de Fransa\u2019da Soultz-sous-Forets b\u00f6lgesinde uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. B\u00f6lgede yeralt\u0131ndaki granit tabakas\u0131 i\u00e7erisine \u00fc\u00e7 tane 5000 metre derinlikte sondaj kuyusu a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (48, 49) Kuyunun birine 2000 y\u0131l\u0131nda 13 MPa bas\u0131n\u00e7 ve saniyede 30-50 litre ak\u0131\u015f h\u0131z\u0131 ile 23.000 ton su bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Di\u011fer iki kuyuya da benzer oranlarda su bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve 2010 y\u0131l\u0131nda d\u00fcnyada ilk kez olmak \u00fczere 1,5 Mw\u2019l\u0131k elektirik enerjisi \u00fcretilmi\u015ftir. Ancak bu i\u015flemler s\u0131ras\u0131nda g\u00fcnde say\u0131s\u0131 8000\u2019e varan, toplamda 114.000 adet tetiklenmi\u015f deprem olmu\u015ftur. Depremler yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan suyun da\u011f\u0131lmas\u0131yla orant\u0131l\u0131 olarak zamanla etrafa yay\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu deneme s\u0131ras\u0131nda en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 2.9 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem ya\u015fanmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen b\u00f6lgedeki halkta rahats\u0131zl\u0131klara neden olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 21. Soldaki \u015fekil: Soultz-sous-For\u00eats\u2019de uygulanan EGS proje alan\u0131ndaki su bas\u0131lan yeralt\u0131 haznesindeki deprem k\u00fcmelenmesinin \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131. Kal\u0131n siyah \u00e7izgiler yery\u00fcz\u00fcnden yap\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131 basma i\u015flemi i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan sondaj kuyular\u0131n\u0131n yerlerini g\u00f6sterir. Sa\u011fdaki \u015fekil: Tetiklenmi\u015f deprem f\u0131rt\u0131nas\u0131n\u0131n 4900 metre derinlik kesitinde k\u00fcmelenme da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131. (48)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1996 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u0130svi\u00e7re Basel kentinde GeoPower Basel (GPB) \u015firketi bir EGS projesi olan Derin Is\u0131 Madencili\u011fi projesi ba\u015flatt\u0131. Projeye g\u00f6re yeralt\u0131nda s\u0131cak kuru kaya olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan granit tabaka i\u00e7erisine kaya \u00e7atlat\u0131l\u0131p \u0131s\u0131t\u0131lmak \u00fczere su bas\u0131lacak ve yery\u00fcz\u00fcne al\u0131n\u0131p elektrik \u00fcretiminde kullan\u0131lacakt\u0131. Sondaj kuyusu 5 km derinli\u011fe kadar delindi ve \u00e7evresine 6 tanesi kuyu i\u00e7erisinde olmak \u00fczere 30 adet deprem kay\u0131t\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 yerle\u015ftirildi. 2 Aral\u0131k 2006\u2019da artan su bas\u0131nc\u0131 uygulamas\u0131yla \u00e7atlat\u0131lan kaya i\u00e7erisine kuyudan 11.570 metrek\u00fcp (ton) su bas\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131. Beklendi\u011fi gibi binlerce tetiklenmi\u015f mikro-deprem kaydedildi. B\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 2.6\u2019ya kadar olan depremler 4,6-5,0 km aras\u0131ndaki derinliklerde olu\u015ftu. Ancak artan ve y\u00fczeyde hissedilen tetiklenmi\u015f deprem etkinli\u011fi nedeniyle yeralt\u0131na su basma i\u015flemi 8 Aral\u0131k\u2019ta durduruldu. Birka\u00e7 saat sonra 3.4 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem olunca halkta korku ve \u00f6fke olu\u015ftu. Bu durum uluslararas\u0131 medyan\u0131n dikkatini \u00e7ekti. Su basma i\u015flemi durdurulduktan sonra tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik azalmaya ba\u015flad\u0131 ve iki ay i\u00e7erisinde b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 3.0\u2019den fazla \u00fc\u00e7 tane daha deprem oldu. (\u015eekil 22) GPB \u015firketi 9 Aral\u0131k\u2019ta yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bas\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131nda, projenin \u00fcretti\u011fi depremlerin beklenenden daha b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyerek \u00fcz\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc belirtti. Hafif hasar alan bir\u00e7ok ev sahibi taraf\u0131ndan tazminat davalar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131 ve GPB\u2019nin \u00f6dedi\u011fi tazminatlar 9 milyon dolar\u0131 a\u015ft\u0131. Kuyular kapat\u0131ld\u0131 ve proje terk edildi. Olaydan sonra iki y\u0131l ge\u00e7mesine ra\u011fmen kuyulardaki deprem kay\u0131t\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 zaman zaman k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem etkinlikleri kaydetmeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

Benzer bir giri\u015fim Almanya Landau b\u00f6lgesinde ya\u015fand\u0131. Yerin 3 km derinli\u011fine \u0131s\u0131tma ama\u00e7l\u0131 su basma i\u015flemi yap\u0131ld\u0131. 2007 y\u0131l\u0131nda elektrik enerjisi \u00fcretimi ba\u015flad\u0131ktan bir s\u00fcre sonra depremler alg\u0131lanmaya ba\u015fland\u0131 ve bunun \u00fczerine proje durduruldu.<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 22. Basel-1 kuyusunda yap\u0131lan su basma i\u015flemi s\u0131ras\u0131nda elde edilen verilerin zaman i\u00e7erisinde da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m grafikleri: a) Yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan suyun litre\/dakika de\u011feri; b) kuyuba\u015f\u0131 bas\u0131nc\u0131; c) tetiklenen depremsellik da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131; d) \u0130svi\u00e7re Deprem Merkezi taraf\u0131ndan kaydedilen depremlerin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fck de\u011ferleri. (50)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Soultz-sous-For\u00eats (Fransa), Basel (\u0130svi\u00e7re), Berlin (El Salvador), Gross Sch\u00f6nebeck (Almanya), Groningen (Hollanda), \u0130zlanda, Kaliforniya Gayzer alanlar\u0131 (ABD) ve Cooper havzas\u0131 (Avustralya) EGS projelerinde tetiklenmi\u015f binlerce k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u00e7evresindeki yerle\u015fim alanlar\u0131nda hasar yapan depremler de olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Son y\u0131llarda artan \u015fik\u00e2yetler ve hasar nedeniyle Avrupa ve ABD\u2019de EGS enerji \u00fcretimine y\u00f6nelik izleme (monitoring), denetleme ve gerekirse \u00fcretimi durdurma veya azaltmaya y\u00f6nelik \u00e7ok say\u0131da ara\u015ft\u0131rma yap\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015f ve y\u00f6nergeler haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00dcretim alan\u0131nda depremsellik \u00f6zel olarak kurulan deprem kay\u0131t a\u011flar\u0131yla 7\/24 izlenmekte, deprem art\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ikaz verilerek \u00fcretim azalt\u0131lmakta hatta durdurulmaktad\u0131r. Bu y\u00f6ntemin ad\u0131 \u201ctrafik ikaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d y\u00f6ntemidir.<\/p>\n

Jeotermal suyun geri bas\u0131lmas\u0131<\/strong>: Jeotermal sahalarda do\u011fan\u0131n normal yollardan verdi\u011finden daha fazla \u00e7ekilen s\u0131cak su\/buhar bir zaman sonra haznenin bas\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fcr ve haznedeki gerilme alan\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fir. Bunu dengelemek i\u00e7in yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde kullan\u0131lan su tekrar hazneye bas\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ve bu i\u015flemde kullan\u0131lan miktar art\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. Yap\u0131lan son ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar tetiklenmi\u015f depremselli\u011fi en fazla etkileyen i\u015flemin jeotermal suyun \u00e7ekilmesi de\u011fil yeniden yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lmas\u0131 ile ilgili oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. (51, 52) Bu olay\u0131n en belirgin ve bilinen \u00f6rne\u011fi ABD\u2019deki Geysers jeotermal alan\u0131d\u0131r. 1860\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llardan beri buhar a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak i\u015fletilen bu kaynakta bas\u0131n\u00e7 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan kullan\u0131lan su yeralt\u0131na \u00e7evre kuyulardan bas\u0131l\u0131r. 1987 y\u0131l\u0131nda saniyede 3500 kilo buhar \u00e7ekilmi\u015f ve 1800 MW elektrik \u00fcretilmi\u015f, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fck miktarlarda su yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lmak zorunda kal\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin Santa Rosa Geysers Su Basma Projesinde g\u00fcnde 41 milyon litre su yeralt\u0131na geri bas\u0131lmaktad\u0131r ve bu de\u011fer \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Amerikan Jeoloji Kurumu (USGS) Geysers b\u00f6lgesinde her y\u0131l 10.000\u2019den fazla tetiklenmi\u015f deprem kaydetmektedir. B\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 2 civar\u0131ndaki depremlerin y\u0131ll\u0131k say\u0131s\u0131 200-300 aras\u0131ndad\u0131r. Bu b\u00f6lgeyle ilgili olarak USGS ar\u015fivlerinde kay\u0131tl\u0131 250.000\u2019den fazla tetiklenmi\u015f deprem bilgisi vard\u0131r. Geleneksel jeotermal sahalarda giderek artan elektrik \u00fcretim etkinliklerinin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 alan oturmas\u0131, \u00e7\u00f6kmeler ve tetiklenmi\u015f deprem olaylar\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131 da \u00e7o\u011falmaktad\u0131r. Sahalardaki oturma de\u011feri baz\u0131 yerlerde y\u0131lda 5 cm\u2019ye ula\u015fmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Kaya gaz\u0131 i\u00e7in bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 suyla kaya \u00e7atlatma<\/strong>: Yeralt\u0131nda do\u011falgaz i\u00e7eren kayalardan geleneksel yollarla gaz\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmak \u00e7ok zordur. Bu nedenle derinlerdeki bu kayalar\u0131 \u00e7atlatarak\/k\u0131rarak ge\u00e7irgenli\u011fi art\u0131rmak ve i\u00e7erisindeki gaz\u0131 alma i\u015flemleri giderek artmaktad\u0131r. Bu yeni teknikte, uygun bir derinli\u011fe kadar a\u00e7\u0131lan d\u00fc\u015fey sondaj, istenilen derinli\u011fe indi\u011finde yatay olarak s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr ve bu yatay sondajdan verilen bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 suyla veya kimyasal kar\u0131\u015f\u0131ml\u0131 s\u0131v\u0131yla kaya \u00e7atlat\u0131larak gaz\u0131n \u00e7ekilmesi kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Say\u0131s\u0131 \u00e7o\u011falan bu uygulamalar do\u011falgaz \u00fcretimini art\u0131rm\u0131\u015f ancak yeralt\u0131 sular\u0131n\u0131n kirletilmesine neden olmu\u015f, bakir alanlarda end\u00fcstriyel kirlilik ve tetiklenmi\u015f depremler gibi olumsuzluklar yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. D\u00fcnyada 2,5 milyon kaya gaz\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karma uygulamas\u0131ndan bug\u00fcne kadar sadece 21 uygulamada (y\u00fcz binde bir) tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik sorunu ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 rapor edilmi\u015ftir. Raporlara yans\u0131yan bu istatisti\u011fin \u00e7ok fazla bir \u015fey ifade etti\u011fi s\u00f6ylenemez. Bu projelerde tetiklenen depremlerin \u00e7o\u011funun k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olmas\u0131 ve az n\u00fcfuslu yerlerde halk\u0131n rahats\u0131z olma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n az olmas\u0131 nedeniyle durum raporlara yans\u0131mamakta, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla istatistiklerin g\u00fcvenli\u011fi sorgulanmaktad\u0131r. Eldeki verilere g\u00f6re bu olaylar\u0131n 8 tanesi ABD\u2019de, 12 tanesi Kanada\u2019da, 1 tanesi de \u0130ngiltere\u2019dedir. Kanada\u2019daki projelerinden ikisinde 4.0\u2019den b\u00fcy\u00fck depremler g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. (53, 54)<\/p>\n

Kanada\u2019da Horn Nehri havzas\u0131nda kaya gaz\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 2006 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f ve \u00fcretim 2010-2011 y\u0131llar\u0131nda en yo\u011fun d\u00fczeyine ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kaya gaz\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndan \u00f6nce b\u00f6lgedeki depremselli\u011fin olduk\u00e7a d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck oldu\u011fu bilinmektedir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u00fcretim ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nceki 2 y\u0131lda b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 1.8 – 2.9 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki deprem say\u0131s\u0131 24 tanedir. Kaya gaz\u0131 \u00fcretimi ba\u015flay\u0131nca bu say\u0131 y\u0131lda 100\u2019e \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmada deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri ile yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan s\u0131v\u0131 miktar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc aras\u0131nda belirgin bir ili\u015fki g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. (55)<\/p>\n

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\u015eekil 23. Kaya gaz\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in petrol haznesinde yap\u0131lan suyla \u00e7atlatma (hydro-fracturing) \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda kuyudan bas\u0131lan suyun hacmi ile olu\u015fan tetiklenmi\u015f depremlerin katlamal\u0131 sismik momentlerinin ili\u015fkisi. Sismik moment depremin bir g\u00fc\u00e7 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr. Kuyudan bas\u0131lan suyun hacmi ise metrek\u00fcp olarak verilmi\u015ftir. Her iki de\u011ferde ger\u00e7ek de\u011ferin logaritmas\u0131 al\u0131narak verilmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin logaritmas\u0131 5,0 olan hacim 100.000 metrek\u00fcp s\u0131v\u0131ya denk gelmektedir. (55)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Maden bo\u015fluklar\u0131n\u0131 su bas\u0131nc\u0131yla destekleme<\/strong>: Madenlerden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan malzemenin bo\u015faltt\u0131\u011f\u0131 alanlar nedeniyle olu\u015fan gerilme de\u011fi\u015fimi yak\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki deprem faylar\u0131ndaki bas\u0131n\u00e7 gerilmelerini azalt\u0131r. Bu nedenle faylar harekete ge\u00e7ebilmektedir. Bu tehlikeyi azaltmak i\u00e7in maden b\u00f6lgesinden su \u00e7ekilir ve faylar \u00fczerindeki g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131 azalt\u0131l\u0131r. Azalan g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131 azalan bas\u0131n\u00e7 gerilmesini dengeler ve faylar durayl\u0131 duruma gelir. Madenler terk edilip su \u00e7ekme durdu\u011funda gerilme dengesi bozulur ve tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik ba\u015flar. Bu olaya ili\u015fkin \u00f6rneklerden biri ABD\u2019de Pensilvanya\u2019da Cacoosing Vadisi\u2019ndeki karbonat madenidir. B\u00f6lgede olan 4.4 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki depremin nedeni olarak madenden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan 4 milyon ton k\u00fctle oldu\u011fu ifade edilmektedir. (56) B\u00f6lgede bozulan gerilme dengeleri nedeniyle deprem faylar\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Deprem \u00e7evredeki yerle\u015fimlerde 2 milyon dolarl\u0131k hasar yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Maden oca\u011f\u0131 1992 y\u0131l\u0131nda terk edilip su \u00e7ekme i\u015flemi durduktan sonraki birka\u00e7 ay i\u00e7inde yeralt\u0131 suyu 10 metre y\u00fckselmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Ara\u015ft\u0131rma projeleri<\/strong>: Yeralt\u0131na yap\u0131lan m\u00fcdahalelerde tetiklenmi\u015f depremlerin olu\u015fmas\u0131 nedeniyle, bu konuyla ilgili fiziksel \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fctlerin ve depremlerin olu\u015fum mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131n belirlenmesi ve tetiklenmi\u015f depremlerin denetim olanaklar\u0131n\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmak i\u00e7in \u00fcretim ile ilgili olmayan \u00f6zel projeler yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yap\u0131lan projelerden 13 tanesinde tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik yarat\u0131labilmi\u015ftir. (3)<\/p>\n

Projelerden bir tanesi Kolorado Rangley petrol sahas\u0131nda yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (57) B\u00f6lgede k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck boyutlu diri faylar bulunmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen kaydedilen depremler sahadaki petrol \u00fcretim ama\u00e7l\u0131 olarak kuyulara su basma ile ilgilidir. Proje gere\u011fi kuyulara artan-azalan bas\u0131n\u00e7la su basma i\u015flemleri yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Elde edilen sonu\u00e7lar artan s\u0131v\u0131 g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131yla tetiklenmi\u015f deprem etkinli\u011fi aras\u0131nda belirgin bir ili\u015fki oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Almanya K\u0131tasal Derin Delgi Program\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde 1990-1994 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda 9,1 km derinlikte bir kuyu a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kuyudan su basma i\u015fleminden birka\u00e7 saat sonra, kuyudan birka\u00e7 on metre \u00f6tede 8,8 km derinlikte en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 1.2 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte olan 400 adet k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem tetiklenmi\u015ftir. Yap\u0131lan hesaplar depremleri yaratan gerilim de\u011fi\u015fiminin 1 MPa\u2019dan biraz k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck oldu\u011funu, bu de\u011ferin ise depremlerin oldu\u011fu o derinlikteki do\u011fal hidrostatik gerilmenin y\u00fczde 1\u2019i civar\u0131nda oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Di\u011fer bir uygulama ise Japonya\u2019da 1995\u2019de olan 6.9 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki depremden hemen sonra uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (58) Depremin olu\u015ftu\u011fu faya 1800 metrede 4 MPa bas\u0131n\u00e7la 258 ton su bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, su basma sonras\u0131 deprem fay\u0131 \u00fczerinde b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc -2 ile 1 aras\u0131ndaki depremlerin artt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. Bu uygulama, fay k\u0131r\u0131klar\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerinin s\u0131v\u0131 ge\u00e7irgenliklerinin y\u00fcksek oldu\u011fu ve fay alan\u0131nda s\u0131v\u0131 g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fczde 10 de\u011fi\u015fiminin fay\u0131 hareket ettirebilece\u011fini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Gaz basma uygulamalar\u0131 <\/strong><\/p>\n

Do\u011falgaz depolama: <\/strong>\u00dcretimi dengelemek, g\u00fcvenlik ve ulusal gaz rezervlerini olu\u015fturma ad\u0131na yeralt\u0131na do\u011falgaz depolamas\u0131 yayg\u0131nla\u015fmaktad\u0131r. May\u0131s 2015 tarihi itibariyle Avrupa\u2019da 268 sahada, ABD\u2019de 400 sahada yeralt\u0131 do\u011falgaz depolama tesisleri vard\u0131r. Do\u011falgaz genellikle bo\u015falan petrol ve do\u011falgaz hazneleri, su havzalar\u0131 ve tuz tabakalar\u0131na depolanmaktad\u0131r. Yeralt\u0131na do\u011falgaz depolama i\u015flemleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda da tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olaylar\u0131 ya\u015fanmaktad\u0131r. Gaz depolanan Hollanda\u2019da Bergermeer sahas\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem tetiklenmi\u015ftir. \u00c7ek Cumhuriyeti\u2019nde Haje sahas\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 1.5 de\u011ferine kadar y\u00fckselen ve ayda 15 adet tetiklenmi\u015f deprem olu\u015ftu\u011fu rapor edilmi\u015ftir. \u00c7in\u2019de Hutubi gaz depolama sahas\u0131nda 2009-2015 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri 3.6\u2019ya varan 700\u2019den fazla tetiklenmi\u015f deprem olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. (3, 4)<\/p>\n

\u00d6zbekistan\u2019daki Gazl\u0131 gaz \u00fcretim sahas\u0131 ayn\u0131 zamanda do\u011falgaz depolama i\u00e7in de kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Burada 1976-1984 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda 3 tane 7.0\u2019den b\u00fcy\u00fck deprem olmu\u015ftur. B\u00f6lgede gaz depolama ile ilgili olarak 5.0 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde deprem tetiklendi\u011fi rapor edilmi\u015ftir. (59)<\/p>\n

\u0130spanya\u2019daki projede ise eski Amposta petrol sahas\u0131na 1,3 milyar metrek\u00fcp do\u011falgaz depolayarak \u0130spanya\u2019n\u0131n gaz ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fczde 25\u2019ini kar\u015f\u0131lamak ama\u00e7lan\u0131yordu. Bu eski petrol haznesine 2-16 Eyl\u00fcl 2013 tarihleri aras\u0131nda 1075 metre derinli\u011fe gaz basma ba\u015flat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, gaz depolama ba\u015flad\u0131ktan \u00fc\u00e7 g\u00fcn sonra 2.6 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem olmu\u015ftur. Gaz basma i\u015flemi 16 Eyl\u00fcl\u2019de durdurulmu\u015f ancak tetiklenmi\u015f deprem etkinli\u011fi s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. 1 Ekim 2013 tarihinde 4.3 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem olmu\u015ftur. Kaydedilen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck deprem say\u0131s\u0131 1000\u2019den fazla, bunlardan 420 tanesinin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 2.0\u2019den daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olmu\u015ftur. 2016 y\u0131l\u0131nda depremsellik s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Daha \u00f6nce 2011 y\u0131l\u0131nda b\u00f6lgede 5.1 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir deprem ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olan halk bu duruma tepki g\u00f6stermi\u015f ve proje durdurulmu\u015ftur. (60) B\u00f6lgenin tarihsel ve aletsel d\u00f6nem depremselli\u011finin \u00e7ok az olmas\u0131, ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bu tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olay\u0131n\u0131n yeralt\u0131na do\u011falgaz depolanmas\u0131 ile ili\u015fkili oldu\u011fu bilimsel g\u00f6zlemlerle a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a ortaya konulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

Petrol \u00fcretimi i\u00e7in CO2<\/sub> (karbondioksit) basma<\/strong>: Petrol \u00fcretimini art\u0131rma amac\u0131yla bir\u00e7ok petrol kuyusundan hazneye CO2<\/sub> bas\u0131l\u0131r. \u00c7o\u011funlu\u011fu Teksas\u2019ta olmak \u00fczere d\u00fcnyada ortalama 100 \u00fcretim geli\u015ftirme sahas\u0131nda bu i\u015flem yap\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bu i\u015flemle ilgili olarak tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olay\u0131n\u0131n biri Teksas\u2019ta (61) di\u011feri Kanada Saskatchewan\u2019dad\u0131r. (62) Teksas\u2019taki Gogdell petrol sahas\u0131nda petrol \u00fcretimini art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in CO2<\/sub> bas\u0131lmas\u0131 2001\u2019de ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f, 2004 y\u0131l\u0131ndan itibaren ayl\u0131k 40 milyon metrek\u00fcp gibi y\u00fcksek bir seviyeye \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. CO2<\/sub> gaz\u0131 basma i\u015fi 2,1 km derinlikte, 20 MPa bas\u0131n\u00e7ta ve 75\u00b0C\u2019de ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. 23 y\u0131ll\u0131k sismik durgunlu\u011fun ard\u0131ndan 2006 y\u0131l\u0131nda bas\u0131lan CO2<\/sub> gaz\u0131n\u0131n oran\u0131ndaki belirgin art\u0131\u015f\u0131 takiben, tekrar tetiklenen depremler ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130zleyen be\u015f y\u0131l boyunca biri b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 4.4 olmak \u00fczere b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc 3.0 ve daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olan 18 deprem olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Sahan\u0131n yak\u0131n \u00e7evresine kurulan \u00e7ok say\u0131daki deprem kay\u0131t istasyonlar\u0131ndan elde edilen kaliteli deprem verilerinden tetiklenmi\u015f depremlerin daha \u00f6nce bilinmeyen bir fay\u0131n harekete ge\u00e7mesi sonucu olu\u015ftu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Dinamit ve n\u00fckleer patlamalar<\/strong><\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer bombalar ve b\u00fcy\u00fck dinamit patlatmalar\u0131 yayd\u0131klar\u0131 sismik dalgalar ile yery\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc sarsarlar ve b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fcklerine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak depremin yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131na benzer hasarlara yol a\u00e7arlar. D\u00fcnyam\u0131z\u0131 saran, \u00f6zellikle karalarda yo\u011funla\u015fan deprem kay\u0131t istasyonlar\u0131 ile g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde d\u00fcnyan\u0131n herhangi bir yerinde 3.5 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki depreme e\u015fde\u011fer dinamit ve n\u00fckleer patlamalar izlenebilmektedir. Depremleri olu\u015fturan fiziksel mekanizma ile dinamit veya n\u00fckleer patlamalar\u0131 olu\u015fturan mekanizma farkl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ile o b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011fe e\u015fde\u011fer sismik enerjiyi yaratabilecek dinamit (TNT)\/n\u00fckleer patlama g\u00fcc\u00fc aras\u0131ndaki say\u0131sal ili\u015fkiye \u00f6rnek vermek gerekirse, \u00f6rne\u011fin 2. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda ABD\u2019nin Hiro\u015fima\u2019ya att\u0131\u011f\u0131 10.000 ton TNT e\u015fde\u011feri atom bombas\u0131n\u0131n enerjisi ortalama 5.5 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki bir depremin sismik enerjisine e\u015fde\u011ferdir. Bir ton TNT 4.2×109<\/sup> Joule enerji yayar. 7.0 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir depremin sismik enerjisine e\u015fde\u011fer bir atom bombas\u0131 ise ortalama 475.000 ton TNT kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fcktedir.<\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fck bir n\u00fckleer patlama, bulundu\u011fu b\u00f6lgede yerkabu\u011funda var olan do\u011fal tektonik gerilmelerin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc etkileyebilir. N\u00fckleer patlamalar\u0131n enerjileri b\u00fcy\u00fck depremlere k\u0131yasla daha az olduklar\u0131ndan etkiledi\u011fi do\u011fal tektonik gerilme enerjisinin de oran\u0131 \u00e7ok az olmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

1945 y\u0131l\u0131ndan bu yana sekiz \u00fclkede ortalama 2000 kez n\u00fckleer deneme yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunlardan 1352 tanesi yeralt\u0131ndad\u0131r. 21 tanesi ABD\u2019de, 1 tanesi ise Rusya\u2019da olmak \u00fczere 22 n\u00fckleer denemede tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. ABD Nevada n\u00fckleer deneme sahas\u0131ndaki 16 denemeden 10 tanesi tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (63) Tetiklenen depremlerin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri n\u00fckleer patlaman\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olmu\u015ftur. Nevada\u2019da yap\u0131lan n\u00fckleer testlerden sonra tetiklenmi\u015f depremler 10 ile 70 g\u00fcn sonras\u0131nda olmakta, derinlikleri 5 km\u2019den daha az ve uzakl\u0131klar\u0131 patlatma noktas\u0131ndan 15 km\u2019den daha yak\u0131nda bulunmaktad\u0131r. (64, 65) Alaska Amchitka\u2019da yap\u0131lan yeralt\u0131 n\u00fckleer denemelerinde 8 km\u2019lik bir fay \u00fczerindeki yer de\u011fi\u015ftirme d\u00fc\u015fey y\u00f6nde 1 m, yatay y\u00f6nde 15 cm olmu\u015ftur. (66) Cannikin Amchitka n\u00fckleer denemesinin sonucu 4.9 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ile \u00f6rnekleri i\u00e7inde en b\u00fcy\u00fck olan deprem, patlatman\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bo\u015flu\u011fun \u00e7\u00f6kmesi ile olu\u015fmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

De\u011ferlendirme ve yorum<\/strong><\/p>\n

D\u00fcnyadaki end\u00fcstriyel etkinliklerin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellikle bug\u00fcne kadar g\u00f6zlemlenen 700\u2019den fazla olay devletlerin, medyan\u0131n ve halk\u0131n dikkatini \u00e7ekmi\u015f ve bir\u00e7ok bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rma ve tart\u0131\u015fmalara konu olmu\u015ftur. Halk\u0131n rahats\u0131z olmas\u0131, \u00e7evre kirlili\u011fi, a\u00e7\u0131lmaya ba\u015flayan tazminat davalar\u0131 nedeniyle baz\u0131 devletler, planlama, izinler ve denetim konusunda baz\u0131 d\u00fczenlemeler yapmaktad\u0131rlar. Yeralt\u0131 kaynaklar\u0131na y\u00f6nelik end\u00fcstriyel olaylar\u0131n az bir oran\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olaylar\u0131 yaratsa bile baz\u0131 \u00fclkeler taraf\u0131ndan benimsenen ek yerbilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar ve incelemeler yoluyla baz\u0131 olas\u0131 riskleri azaltmak i\u00e7in yeni stratejiler geli\u015ftirilmektedir. \u015eubat 2015\u2019te EPA (ABD \u00c7evre Koruma Ajans\u0131) petrol, gaz ve at\u0131k su depolama ve bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 suyla yeralt\u0131nda kaya \u00e7atlatma (hydro-fracturing) vb gibi end\u00fcstriyel uygulamalar ile ilgili tetiklenmi\u015f deprem dahil di\u011fer \u00e7evresel riskleri en aza indirmek ve y\u00f6netmek i\u00e7in rapor, yasa ve y\u00f6netmelikler yay\u0131nlamaktad\u0131r. (67, 68) ABD\u2019de 30.000\u2019den fazla at\u0131k su bertaraf kuyusunun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 -k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc dahi olsa- hasar yap\u0131c\u0131 deprem tetiklemesi nedeniyle \u00e7ok fazla dikkat \u00e7ekmektedir. At\u0131k su ve kimyasal s\u0131v\u0131lar\u0131n yeralt\u0131na depolanmas\u0131 gibi uygulamalar\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu risklerin azalt\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in toplumsal duyarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n artmas\u0131 gerekmektedir.<\/p>\n

Hollanda\u2019da Groningen do\u011falgaz sahas\u0131nda olu\u015fan tetiklenmi\u015f depremler nedeniyle Hollanda Ekonomi Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 tetiklenmi\u015f depremlerin olu\u015fumunu daha iyi anlamak ve bunlar\u0131n risklerini de\u011ferlendirmek i\u00e7in kapsaml\u0131 bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma program\u0131 ba\u015flatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (69) 2013 y\u0131l\u0131nda Groningen gaz haznelerinden 53,9 milyar metrek\u00fcp do\u011falgaz \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131rken olu\u015fan tetiklenmi\u015f depremleri azaltmak i\u00e7in 2015-2016 d\u00f6neminde \u00fcretim tavan\u0131 27 milyar metrek\u00fcpe d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

San Francisco\u2019nun kuzeyindeki Geysers sahas\u0131nda planlanan yeni bir jeotermal projesi i\u00e7in halk\u0131n tepkisi Enerji Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n projeyi ask\u0131ya almas\u0131 ile sonu\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7evreyi daha az kirleten alternatif enerji kaynaklar\u0131 \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda olu\u015fan ve halk\u0131 rahats\u0131z eden tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olaylar\u0131 nedeniyle durumun uzmanlar ve y\u00f6neticiler taraf\u0131ndan g\u00f6zden ge\u00e7irilmesi gerekmektedir. Tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik ve di\u011fer \u00e7evre etkileri konusunda projelerden \u00f6nce, s\u0131ras\u0131nda ve sonras\u0131nda kamuya ve yetkililere gerekli bilgilerin verilmesi sa\u011flanmal\u0131d\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca yerel ve merkezi y\u00f6neticiler olas\u0131 deprem riskini denetim alt\u0131na almak i\u00e7in, yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan ak\u0131\u015fkanlar\u0131n bas\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131 veya yerini s\u0131n\u0131rlamak gibi \u00f6nlem stratejileri geli\u015ftirmelidir. Olas\u0131 riskler ve hasarlara kar\u015f\u0131 sigortalama i\u015flemlerinin nas\u0131l olaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmelidir. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7 biliminsanlar\u0131, politikac\u0131lar ve halk\u0131n kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortamlarda tart\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 gerektirir. Aksi durumda, toplum bilgilenemedi\u011fi i\u00e7in gelecekte umut verici alternatif enerji teknolojilerine tepkiler artarak s\u00fcrecektir.<\/p>\n

2014 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u0130talya Ekonomik Geli\u015fme Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 hidrokarbon (petrol-do\u011falgaz) \u00fcretimi, yeralt\u0131na su\/s\u0131v\u0131 basma ve do\u011falgaz depolama ile ilgili olarak bir \u0130zleme Y\u00f6netmeli\u011fi yay\u0131nlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Y\u00f6netmelik tetiklenen depremlerin, yer ortam\u0131n\u0131n yamulmas\u0131n\u0131n (deformasyon) ve s\u0131v\u0131 g\u00f6zenek bas\u0131nc\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fiminin izlenmesi ile ilgili standartlar\u0131 belirlemi\u015ftir. Bu y\u00f6netmeli\u011fin temel ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 kurallar, yukar\u0131da s\u0131ralad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z t\u00fcrde end\u00fcstriyel projelerle ilgili olarak a) tetiklenmi\u015f ve do\u011fal depremleri kaydetmek, b) tetiklenmi\u015f ve do\u011fal depremleri ay\u0131rt etmek, c) trafik \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na uygun olarak kullan\u0131labilir bir karar verme d\u00fczeni olu\u015fturmak ve d) sanayi \u015firketinin izleme \u015feffafl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131na m\u00fcdahale etmemesinin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 olarak \u00f6zetlenebilir<\/p>\n

Bir b\u00f6lgede insan kaynakl\u0131 end\u00fcstriyel etkinlikler nedeniyle tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n incelenmesi veya belirli bir end\u00fcstriyel etkinli\u011fe ba\u011fl\u0131 olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, o etkinli\u011fin kesin olarak tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 veya zarar verici depremlere neden olaca\u011f\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmez. Ancak bilinmelidir ki say\u0131s\u0131 ve kapasitesi giderek artan yeralt\u0131 kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131n elde edilmesi ve \u00fcretimin art\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 giri\u015fimlerinde hasar yapan depremler tetiklenmi\u015ftir. Ancak \u00e7o\u011fu tetiklenmi\u015f deprem b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckleri itibariyle hasar yap\u0131c\u0131 da de\u011fildir. Tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik konusu bir bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rma ve inceleme alan\u0131 olmakla birlikte s\u00f6ylentilere ve toplumda yanl\u0131\u015f anla\u015f\u0131lmalara da a\u00e7\u0131k bir konudur. \u0130lgilenenlerin bu t\u00fcr \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n g\u00fcvenilir sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in bilimsel yay\u0131nlara ba\u015fvurmalar\u0131 ve konuyla ilgili biliminsanlar\u0131na dan\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 gerekir.<\/p>\n

Baz\u0131 tan\u0131mlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

Megapascal (MPa)<\/strong>: Pascal\u00a0(paskal) metrik sistemde bas\u0131n\u00e7 birimidir. Ad\u0131n\u0131 Frans\u0131z bilim adam\u0131 Blaise Pascal\u2019dan al\u0131r. Soludu\u011fumuz havan\u0131n do\u011fal atmosfer bas\u0131nc\u0131 0,1013 MPa\u2019d\u0131r. Bu de\u011fer 1,013 bar bas\u0131nca e\u015fittir. Bir otomobilin lastik bas\u0131nc\u0131 ortalama 3,2 MPa\u2019d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Megawatt (Mw)<\/strong>: 1 Mw enerji, 1 milyon watt (w) enerjiye e\u015fde\u011ferdir ve bu enerji 1000 evin elektrik enerji ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lar. Evlerimizdeki \u00fct\u00fc ve elektrik sobalar\u0131 1000-2000 watt\/saat enerji harcarlar.<\/p>\n

Trafik \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6ntemi<\/strong>: Tetiklenmi\u015f depremsellik yaratan end\u00fcstriyel uygulamalarda \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n tehlikeyi azaltmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan denetim y\u00f6ntemidir. Bu y\u00f6nteme g\u00f6re \u00fcretim sahas\u0131nda olu\u015fan depremleri 7\/24 kaydeden sistem tetiklenmi\u015f depremselli\u011fin durumuna g\u00f6re uyar\u0131 verir. Ye\u015fil: deprem art\u0131\u015f\u0131 yok, sar\u0131: deprem art\u0131\u015f\u0131 var kabul edilebilir, k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131: sahada \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma (\u00fcretim) durdurulmal\u0131.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Kaynaklar<\/strong><\/p>\n

3) Foulger, G. R., Wilson, M. P., Gluyas, J. G., Davies, R. J., & Julian, B. R., 2017. Global review of induced and triggered earthquakes. Earth-Science Reviews, submitted.<\/p>\n

4) Wilson, M. P., Foulger, G. R., Gluyas, J. G., Davies, R. J., & Julian, B. R., 2017. The Human-Induced Earthquake Database, HiQuake. Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, UK. Dataset. http:\/\/inducedearthquakes.org\/reports\/<\/p>\n

6) McGarr, A., 2014. Maximum magnitude earthquakes induced by fluid injection, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 119, 1008-1019.<\/p>\n

42) Healy, J. H., W. W. Rubey, D. T. Griggs, and C. B. Raleigh, 1968. The Denver earthquakes, Science, 61, 1301-1310.<\/p>\n

43) Yeck, W. L., A. F. Sheehan, M. Weingarten, J. Nakai, and S. Ge, 2014. The 2014 Greeley, Colorado earthquakes: Science, industry, regulation, and media, paper presented at AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.<\/p>\n

44) Nicholson, C., E. Roeloffs, and R. L. Wesson, 1988. The northeastern Ohio earthquake of 31 January 1986: Was it induced?, Bull. seismol. Soc. Am., 78, 188-217.<\/p>\n

45) McNamara, D. E., H. M. Benz, R. B. Herrmann, E. A. Bergman, P. Earle, A. Holland, R. Baldwin, and A. Gassner, 2015. Earthquake hypocenters and focal mechanisms in central Oklahoma reveal a complex system of reactivated subsurface strike-slip faulting, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 2742-2749.<\/p>\n

46) Kovach, R. L., 1974. Source mechanisms for Wilmington oil field, California, subsidence earthquakes, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 64, 699-711.<\/p>\n

47) Hirschberg, S., Wiemer, S. and Burgherr, P. (eds.), 2015. Energy from the earth: Deep geothermal as a resource for the future? TA-SWISS, Centre for Technology Assessment, vdf Hochschulverlag AG an der ETH Z\u00fcrich, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.<\/p>\n

48) Baisch, S., E. Rothert, H. Stang, R. Voeroes, C. Koch, and A. McMahon, 2015. Continued geothermal reservoir stimulation experiments in the Cooper Basin, Australia. Bull. seismol. Soc. Am., 105, 198-209.<\/p>\n

49) Calo, M., C. Dorbath, and M. Frogneux, 2014. Injection tests at the EGS reservoir of Soultz- sous-Forets. Seismic response of the GPK4 stimulations, Geothermics, 52, 50-58,<\/p>\n

50) H\u00e4ring, M. O., U. Schanz, F. Ladner, and B. C. Dyer, 2008. Characterisation of the Basel 1 enhanced geothermal system, Geothermics, 37, 469-495.<\/p>\n

51) Majer, E. L., and J. E. Peterson, 2008. The impact of injection on seismicity at The Geysers, California geothermal field, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 44, 1079-1090.<\/p>\n

52) Stark, M. A., 1990. Imaging injected water in The Geysers reservoir using microearthquake data, GRC Transactions, 17, 1697-1704.<\/p>\n

53) Kao, H., A. M. Farahbod, J. F. Cassidy, M. Lamontagne, D. Snyder, and D. Lavoie, 2015. Natural resources Canada\u2019s induced seismicity research, in Schatzalp Induced Seismicity Workshop, 10-13 March 2015, Davos, Switzerland.<\/p>\n

54) Schultz, R., V. Stern, M. Novakovic, G. Atkinson, and Y. J. Gu, 2015. Hydraulic fracturing and the Crooked Lake sequences: Insights gleaned from regional seismic networks, Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 2750-2758.<\/p>\n

55) Farahbod, A. M., H. Kao, D. M. Walker, J. F. Cassidy, and A. Calvert, 2015. Investigation of regional seismicity before and after hydraulic fracturing in the Horn River Basin, northeast British Columbia, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 52, 112- 122.<\/p>\n

56) Seeber, L., J. G. Armbruster, W. Y. Kim, N. Barstow, and C. Scharnberger, 1998. The 1994 Cacoosing Valley earthquakes near Reading, Pennsylvania: A shallow rupture triggered by quarry unloading, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 103, 24505- 24521.<\/p>\n

57) Raleigh, C. B., J. H. Healy, and J. D. Bredehoeft, 1976. An experiment in earthquake control at Rangely, Colorado, Science, 191, 1230-1237.<\/p>\n

58), Tadokoro, K., M. Ando, and K. y. Nishigami, 2000. Induced earthquakes accompanying the water injection experiment at the Nojima fault zone, Japan: Seismicity and its migration, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 105, 6089-6104.<\/p>\n

59) Plotnikova, L. M., B. S. Nurtaev, J. R. Grasso, L. M. Matasova, and R. Bossu, 1996. The character and extent of seismic deformation in the focal zone of Gazli earthquakes of 1976 and 1984, M> 7.0, in Induced seismic events, pp. 377-387, Springer.<\/p>\n

60) Gaite, B., A. Ugalde, A. Villase\u00f1or, and E. Blanch, 2016. Improving the location of induced earthquakes associated with an underground gas storage in the Gulf of Valencia, Spain.<\/p>\n

61) Gan, W., and C. Frohlich, 2013. Gas injection may have triggered earthquakes in the Cogdell oil field, Texas, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 110, 18786-18791,<\/p>\n

62) Verdon, J. P., J. M. Kendall, A. L. Stork, R. A. Chadwick, D. J. White, and R. C. Bissell, 2013. Comparison of geomechanical deformation induced by megatonne-scale CO2 storage at Sleipner, Weyburn, and In Salah, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, E2762-E2771.<\/p>\n

63) Boucher, G., A. Ryall, and A. E. Jones, 1969. Earthquakes associated with underground nuclear explosions, J. Geophys. Res., 74, 3808-3820.<\/p>\n

64) Hamilton, R. M., B. E. Smith, F. G. Fischer, and P. J. Papanek, 1972. Earthquakes caused by underground nuclear explosions on Pahute Mesa, Nevada Test Site, Bull. seismol. Soc. Am., 62, 1319-1341.<\/p>\n

65) McKeown, F. A., 1975. Relation of geological structure to seismicity at Pahute Mesa, Nevada test site, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 65, 747-764.<\/p>\n

66) McKeown, F. A., and D. D. Dickey, 1969. Fault displacements and motion related to nuclear explosions, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 59, 2253-2269.<\/p>\n

67) https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/hw\/proper-management-oil-and-gas-exploration-and-production-waste<\/p>\n

68) https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/hydraulicfracturing<\/p>\n

69) Lucia van Geuns, 2013. Induced seismicity in the Groningen Gas Field, NL: challenges and lessons learnt, Netherlands Induced Seismicity Potential in Energy Technologies 262 pages.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Do\u011falgaz, petrol ve maden \u00fcretimi s\u0131ras\u0131nda \u00fcretimi art\u0131rma ama\u00e7l\u0131 kaya \u00e7atlatma i\u00e7in yeralt\u0131na bas\u0131lan bas\u0131n\u00e7l\u0131 su ve s\u0131v\u0131lar\u0131n veya at\u0131k su, s\u0131cak su, CO2, hidrojen gaz\u0131 ve do\u011falgaz depolama s\u0131ras\u0131nda ilgili b\u00f6lge yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda tetiklenmi\u015f depremler olu\u015ftu\u011fu m\u00fchendislik d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da yay\u0131nla ortaya konulmu\u015ftur. \u00d6te yandan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir n\u00fckleer patlama, bulundu\u011fu b\u00f6lgede yerkabu\u011funda var olan do\u011fal […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":233,"featured_media":17911,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1130,217,232],"tags":[691,1540,2100,2122],"class_list":["post-17910","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-164-sayi","category-cevre-bilimleri","category-yerbilimleri","tag-deprem","tag-fay-hatti","tag-insan-marifetiyle-deprem","tag-yer-bilimleri"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t