{"id":19377,"date":"2017-08-01T17:26:16","date_gmt":"2017-08-01T14:26:16","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=19377"},"modified":"2018-02-13T17:56:48","modified_gmt":"2018-02-13T14:56:48","slug":"emperyalistlesme-irkcilik-ve-savas-almanya-ornegi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2017\/08\/01\/emperyalistlesme-irkcilik-ve-savas-almanya-ornegi","title":{"rendered":"Emperyalistle\u015fme, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k ve sava\u015f\u00a0– Almanya \u00f6rne\u011fi –"},"content":{"rendered":"

Bir kapitalist \u00fclkenin emperyalistle\u015fmesi, ayn\u0131 zamanda gericile\u015fmesiyle birlikte ve e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olur. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc emperyalizm, ilhak e\u011filimi demektir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ilhak e\u011filimi sald\u0131rganl\u0131k demektir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc sald\u0131rganl\u0131k, gericile\u015fmeyle m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr, emperyalist gericile\u015fme mutlaka \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kt\u0131r. Emperyalizm \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla birliktedir, i\u00e7 i\u00e7edir. Emperyalist olup \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 olmamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Ancak emperyalist Almanya\u2019n\u0131n \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla kucakla\u015fmas\u0131, di\u011fer emperyalistlerin \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131ndan \u00f6ncedir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Almanya daha ulusalla\u015f\u0131rken, Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 \u201cba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k sava\u015f\u0131\u201d verirken ve hen\u00fcz emperyalist de\u011filken \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa bula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Alman yurtseverli\u011fi \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla birlikte ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u201cCermen delili\u011fi madde u\u011fruna insan\u0131
\nb\u0131rakt\u0131 ve i\u015fte b\u00f6ylece bir sabah yumu\u015fak
\n\u015f\u00f6valyelerimiz ve demir kahramanlar\u0131m\u0131z
\nyurtsever olarak uyand\u0131lar.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

Karl Marx<\/p>\n

\u201cAlmanlar, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc hi\u00e7 tatmam\u0131\u015f \u00e7ocuklar gibidirler.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

Rosa Luxemburg<\/p>\n

ALMANYA NASIL EMPERYAL\u0130ST OLDU?<\/strong><\/h4>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Almanya\u2019daki siyasal geli\u015fmeler, ayn\u0131 zamanda, Alman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn hayat\u0131ndaki \u00e7e\u015fitli olumsuz \u00f6zelliklerle birle\u015fti ve ba\u015fka baz\u0131 olumsuz yeniliklerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131.[1]<\/a> \u201cZor\u201du y\u00fccelten siyasal ortam, felsefede, hukukta, siyasal ortamda ko\u015fut anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. Fransa\u2019daki \u201cEski Rejim savunucular\u0131\u201dndan etkilenen Historischen Rechtsschule<\/em> (\u201cTarihsel Okul\u201d \/ \u201cTarih\u00e7i Okul\u201d) adl\u0131 hukuk ak\u0131m\u0131[2]<\/a> gericili\u011fin k\u00f6kle\u015fmesine hizmet etti. Toplum-devlet ili\u015fkisindeki sorunlar\u0131 ele alma e\u011filimleri zay\u0131flad\u0131, H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131kla ilgili sorgulamalardan ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131, h\u00fcmanist d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler de\u011fer kaybetti. Bu alanlarda Almanya\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel hayat\u0131na katk\u0131da bulunan ilerici ayd\u0131nlar ve sanat\u00e7\u0131lar \u00f6nemsizle\u015fti ve g\u00f6zden d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Frans\u0131z Devriminden yana tutumu ile sivrilen ve \u201cAlman Felsefesi\u201dnin \u00fc\u00e7 aya\u011f\u0131ndan biri olan Hegel\u2019den ve ayd\u0131n sorumlulu\u011funun bir simgesi say\u0131lacak kadar cesur Wieland\u2019dan s\u00f6z edilmez oldu. \u201cBirlik\u201d, g\u00fc\u00e7lenme ve yay\u0131lma, bu \u00fc\u00e7 \u015fey, edebiyatta de\u011fi\u015fik tarz\u0131yla bir Alman icad\u0131 olan 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l romantizminde[3]<\/a> kendine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel bir zemin buldu. Bu ak\u0131m\u0131 en fazla etkileyen filozoflar ve ayd\u0131nlar olarak Fichte[4]<\/a>, Schlegel karde\u015fler[5]<\/a> ve Schelling\u2019in[6]<\/a> a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 yapt\u0131klar\u0131 \u201cduygusal ak\u0131lc\u0131l\u0131k\u201d, \u201cben\u201dcilik, \u201c\u00f6znellik\u201d ve ki\u015fisellik, bo\u015fluklar\u0131 dolduran roller oynad\u0131. Goethe ve Schiller\u2019in klasik ve evrenselci e\u011filimleri Alman ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na engel gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc i\u00e7in, bu \u00f6zelliklerden kurtulmak isteyen gruplar, kendilerine uygun bulduklar\u0131 \u201cAlmanya\u2019ya \u00f6zg\u00fc romantizm\u201de sar\u0131ld\u0131lar. Goethe\u2019nin, Egmond\u2019un ki\u015fili\u011finde zorlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck tutkusu ve kahramanl\u0131k[7]<\/a> yeterli g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fcyordu. Faust<\/em>\u2019tan (1806) sonra yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Bat\u0131-Do\u011fu Divan\u0131<\/em> (1819) y\u00fcz\u00fcnden Goethe \u201cM\u00fcsl\u00fcman olmu\u015f dinsiz\u201d olarak su\u00e7land\u0131. Goethe\u2019nin k\u00f6t\u00fclenmesi i\u00e7in bahaneler aran\u0131yordu. Goethe ise, romantiklerin devrimin \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kacaklar\u0131 konusunda kayg\u0131lar ta\u015f\u0131maktayd\u0131. Hakl\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Schiller\u2019in Wallerstein ve Maria Stuart tiplemeleri anlaml\u0131 bulunmuyordu.[8]<\/a> Shakespeare y\u00fcceltiliyordu ama Heine\u2019ye g\u00f6re bu \u201cSchiller\u2019i al\u00e7altmak i\u00e7in\u201d yap\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Descartes\u2019in cogito ergo sum<\/em>\u2019u Almanya\u2019da ge\u00e7erli de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n

Ak\u0131nt\u0131ya kap\u0131l\u0131p s\u00fcr\u00fcklenip sonradan kendine gelenler de oldu, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Heine, 1815\u2019te 18 ya\u015f\u0131nda Almanl\u0131kla yan\u0131p tutu\u015fmu\u015fken, 1819\u2019da aya\u011f\u0131 suya ermi\u015f, cereyana mesafe koymu\u015ftu. \u201cAtalar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 merak etmeyen, eski Almancay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmek istemeyen\u201d akranlar\u0131ndan \u015fik\u00e2yet etmi\u015f gen\u00e7 Heine i\u00e7in, ge\u00e7mi\u015f, gelenek, kutsall\u0131k, ahlak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k anlams\u0131zla\u015facak, Schlegel\u2019in, Arndt\u2019\u0131n[9]<\/a> derslerini ve yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131rmamacas\u0131na izleyen Heine bir s\u00fcre sonra onlar\u0131, yazd\u0131klar\u0131nda alay konusu yapacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u201cTanr\u0131sal\u201d Cermenler ve amigolar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c\u0130nsan \u00fcst\u00fcn varl\u0131k oldu\u011funa g\u00f6re Almanlara en m\u00fckemmel insan diyebiliriz; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bir Alman b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkelerin insanlar\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn karakteristik \u00f6zelliklerini, becerilerini ve erdemlerini kendinde birle\u015ftiriyor.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em>Bogumil Goltz<\/p>\n

Cermenler \u201cilk halk\u201dt\u0131, \u201cyarat\u0131c\u0131 deha\u201d ve \u201cd\u00fc\u015f g\u00fcc\u00fc\u201d her \u015feydi. Bir halk\u0131n ruhunun efsanelerle geli\u015fece\u011fi teorisinin sahibi Herder[10]<\/a>, d\u00f6nemin b\u00fct\u00fcn romantik yazarlar\u0131n\u0131 etkiledi. Heinrich von Kleist[11]<\/a>, Arndt gibi yazarlar etkilenenlerin en \u00f6nemlileriydi. Novalis[12]<\/a>, tutucu romantizmi bi\u00e7imlendirdi. Orta \u00c7a\u011f\u0131n idealize edilmesi ba\u015flad\u0131. \u201cDie Christenheit oder Europa\u201d ba\u015fl\u0131kl\u0131 yaz\u0131s\u0131yla Novalis, romantizmin muhafazak\u00e2r program\u0131n\u0131 bi\u00e7imlendirirken Almanlar\u0131 da yeni bir yol aramaya zorluyordu.<\/p>\n

Tarihlerini ke\u015ffetmenin mutlulu\u011fu ve sarho\u015flu\u011fu, tarihi, ideolojinin vurucu bir silah\u0131na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrd\u00fc. Marx\u2019\u0131n, ideolojilerin s\u0131n\u0131f temeli oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131n\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fa\u015fk\u0131nl\u0131k ve uzla\u015fmazl\u0131k, i\u015fin b\u00fcy\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc bozacak, mutluluk ve sarho\u015flu\u011fu \u00f6fke ve fanatizme \u00e7evirecekti. Vaktiyle h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlara itaatin ve sadakatin, devlete hizmetin ve ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n en \u00f6nemli erdemler aras\u0131nda oldu\u011funu yazm\u0131\u015f Avusturyal\u0131 Grillparzer, d\u00f6nemin tarih\u00e7ilik anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na ele\u015ftirel yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131nda sans\u00fcre u\u011frayacakt\u0131.[13]<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"
\u00dcnl\u00fc Alman \u015fair Heinrich Heine, 1815\u2019te 18 ya\u015f\u0131nda Almanl\u0131kla yan\u0131p tutu\u015fmu\u015fken, 1819\u2019da cereyana mesafe koymu\u015ftu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Alman \u00fcniversitelerinde \u00f6\u011frenim yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yedi y\u0131l\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l\u0131ndan Heine, \u201cRoma hukuku, hukuk tutuculu\u011fu [ve] hayata ayk\u0131r\u0131 bilimcilik\u201dten nefret etti\u011fini s\u00f6yleyerek s\u00f6z edecektir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l\u0131n\u0131 \u201charcad\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d hukuk, \u201cm\u00fclkiyetin ve egemenlerin hizmetindeki despotizmin, haks\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n devlet taraf\u0131ndan hakl\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lma bilimi\u201d idi. Bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerinin kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ise Almanya\u2019da ya\u015fayamamak olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Klasisizmi reddetmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan, ayd\u0131nlanmay\u0131 ba\u015fka ve ters bir \u015fekilde ele alan b\u00fct\u00fcn bu felsefi ve sanatsal ak\u0131mlar \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fc dinsellikler i\u00e7inde antimateryalist, idealist ve hayalciydiler.[14]<\/a><\/p>\n

\u201cBarbar d\u00f6nemler\u201d bile ulusal kimlik yolunun d\u00f6\u015fenmesinde i\u015fe yarayacakt\u0131. Bu d\u00f6nemde Gotik\u2019in y\u00fcceltilmesi, bir aray\u0131\u015f ve kap\u0131lanman\u0131n sonucuydu. Gotik\u2019in anlam olarak bir ihtiyac\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor gibi olmas\u0131 yan\u0131nda, s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn bir Cermen kavminden geliyor olmas\u0131, bilimadamlar\u0131n\u0131n, onun \u201cAlman mal\u0131\u201d oldu\u011funu iddia etmelerinin dayana\u011f\u0131 olur. Asl\u0131nda Gotik, \u201cen fazla uluslararas\u0131la\u015fm\u0131\u015f tarzlardan biridir\u201d ama Alman d\u0131\u015f\u0131 Avrupal\u0131l\u0131k i\u00e7in (sanat tarih\u00e7isi John Ruskin\u2019in s\u00f6zleriyle) \u201cvah\u015filik\u201dken, Almanlar i\u00e7in \u00f6v\u00fcn\u00fclecek bir sahiplenme \u00f6znesidir.[15]<\/a><\/p>\n

Goethe\u2019nin, 1788\u2019de yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Egmond<\/em>\u2019un kahraman\u0131, bir d\u00f6nemler Strazburg Katedrali \u00f6rne\u011finde Gotik\u2019i kutsamas\u0131[16]<\/a> (ki sonradan bundan vazge\u00e7mi\u015fti) \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131p istismar edildi.<\/p>\n

Bunlard\u0131n hepsi, sonradan ipin ucunun ka\u00e7aca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilemeden, bir ihtiyac\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131yorlard\u0131 – ulusal uyan\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmek ve h\u0131zland\u0131rmak, birli\u011fi beslemek.<\/p>\n

Sanat d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda bu cereyan geni\u015f \u00e7evreleri etkisine ald\u0131. Carl Maria von Weber (1797-1826), \u201cAlman\u201d operas\u0131 yaratman\u0131n pe\u015finde konu olarak efsaneleri, melodi olarak halk \u015fark\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011ferlendirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. D\u00f6nemin b\u00fcy\u00fck Alman bestecisi Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), politikay\u0131 politikac\u0131lara b\u0131rakan, \u201culusun \u00f6\u011fretmeni\u201d olmay\u0131 pek d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeyen anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131na ve hi\u00e7bir k\u00f6t\u00fc niyeti bulunmamas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, Birli\u011fe, Bismarck\u2019a, geli\u015fmeye, mutlak\u0131yete, imparatora hayran olmaktan, bunlar\u0131 savunmaktan kendini alam\u0131yordu.[17]<\/a><\/p>\n

Ayd\u0131nlanma Fransa\u2019s\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131karak B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devrimi\u2019nden beslenen Romantizm, devrimci olan bu modern ak\u0131m, edebiyatta, m\u00fczikte, plastik sanatlarda ba\u015fka bir \u015fekle, gerici bir \u00f6ze b\u00fcr\u00fcnerek, devrimci romantikleri, Rousseau\u2019lar\u0131, Beethoven\u2019lar\u0131 d\u0131\u015flayarak, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n aristokratik romantizminin de gerisine d\u00fc\u015ferek, Almanya\u2019da \u201cyeni bir \u015fey\u201d, gerici bir \u015fey oldu. Devrimin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olan ak\u0131m, kar\u015f\u0131devrimin mal\u0131<\/strong>yd\u0131 art\u0131k.[18]<\/a> \u201cAte\u015f da\u011f\u0131ndan f\u0131\u015fk\u0131ran bir lav seli\u201d olan Devrimci Romantizm[19]<\/a>, muhafazak\u00e2rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n elinde ba\u015fka bir \u015feye hizmet eden ba\u015fka bir romantizme d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, onun kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 olmu\u015ftu. Destanlar, insanlar\u0131n cesaret, fedak\u00e2rl\u0131k, olgunluk, ho\u015fg\u00f6r\u00fc, bilgelik gibi erdemlerini konu eder ve y\u00fcceltirken, bu erdemler yoluyla hayranl\u0131k ve \u00f6zenme uyand\u0131rmaya y\u00f6nelirken, Nibelungen gibi Alman destanlar\u0131nda insan\u00fcst\u00fc nitelikli \u00f6zneler ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc i\u015fler yaparlar. Destanlar\u0131n\u0131 bir \u00f6v\u00fcn\u00e7 konusu yapan Alman romantizmi, asl\u0131nda romantizmden bir \u201csapma\u201d halini al\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u00d6zellikle vals en ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere, Almanlara \u00f6zg\u00fc duygusal m\u00fczik e\u015fli\u011findeki duygusal danslar romantik bir modayd\u0131 ve iyice yayg\u0131nla\u015fm\u0131\u015f, herkes taraf\u0131ndan bilinir hale gelmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z ile Alman edebiyat\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 ele al\u0131nmas\u0131nda kolayca g\u00f6r\u00fclecektir, konular, temalar, ya belirli bir d\u00f6nem ele al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda o d\u00f6nem boyunca e\u015fzamanl\u0131 de\u011fildir, ya da ayn\u0131 derecede ve ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131mazlar. Burjuva roman t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn geli\u015fme g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi Fransa\u2019da \u015f\u00f6valyelik temalar\u0131 geride kal\u0131r, romanda ilk kez \u201cmodern toplumsal sorunlar\u201d \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karken, Almanya h\u00e2l\u00e2 o \u201ceski\u201d konulardad\u0131r. Ser\u00fcven hevesleri, kahramanl\u0131k d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, \u015f\u00f6valyelik ahlak\u0131, aristokrat havalar Fransa\u2019da itibar kaybetmi\u015fken ve alay konusu olmu\u015fken, Almanya ser\u00fcven, kahramanl\u0131k, soylu (sarayl\u0131) kad\u0131n ve \u015f\u00f6valye a\u015fk\u0131 pe\u015findedir. Alman sanat\u0131, kom\u015fusuna g\u00f6re fazlas\u0131yla \u201cbayat\u201dt\u0131r. 18. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan ba\u015flayarak Fransa\u2019da \u201ctarihsel roman\u201d ciddi edebiyat say\u0131lmaz ve hafifsenirken[20]<\/a>, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Almanya\u2019da neredeyse yeni ke\u015ffedilmekte, \u00f6nemsenmekte ve el \u00fcst\u00fcnde tutulmaktad\u0131r. Eski kanl\u0131 Alman sagalar\u0131 tekrarlan\u0131p durmaktad\u0131r. Romanslar moda olmu\u015ftur. Hatta Orta \u00c7a\u011f\u0131n \u015f\u00f6valyelerinin kahramanl\u0131k \u00f6yk\u00fcleri ve Minnesang<\/em>lar\u0131, Minnelyrik<\/em>leri (a\u015fk \u015fark\u0131lar\u0131-\u015fiirleri), 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda yeniden hat\u0131rlanacak ve yeniden kullan\u0131ma konulacak, -\u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc tamamlamam\u0131\u015f olarak ve tamamlam\u0131\u015f olmakla birlikte- yak\u0131n zamanlara kadar da gelecekti.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Prof. Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769-1860), Hitler\u2019in sar\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 \u201cReich\u201d kavram\u0131na \u00f6zel anlam\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fckleyen ki\u015fiydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Orta \u00c7a\u011f Avrupa edebiyat\u0131nda yurtseverlik benzeri burjuva \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n konular\u0131 hen\u00fcz ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ama o d\u00f6nemin konular\u0131, Orta \u00c7a\u011f Avrupa edebiyat\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7 \u00fcr\u00fcnleri olan \u00fcr\u00fcnler, 18. ve 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n Alman \u015f\u00f6valye edebiyat\u0131nda hep bulunmaktayd\u0131. Bunun anlam\u0131, Almanlar\u0131n kapitalizme ge\u00e7erken halen Orta \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 ya\u015famaya devam etmesiydi. Kapitalizme Orta \u00c7a\u011f a\u015f\u0131lanacak, Almanya\u2019da kapitalizme ge\u00e7i\u015f d\u00f6neminde, ya\u015famaya devam eden Orta \u00c7a\u011f, feodal de\u011ferleri kapitalizmin hizmetine ko\u015facakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Hobsbawm, Alman edebiyat\u0131nda R<\/em>\u00e4<\/em>uberromantik<\/em> (\u201cHaydut Romantizmi\u201d) adl\u0131 yepyeni \u201cbir edebi kategori\u201dden s\u00f6z edildi\u011fini, Alman edebiyat tarih\u00e7ilerinin b\u00f6yle bir kategori yaratt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, bunun nedeninin, okurlar\u0131 k\u00f6yl\u00fcler ve haydutlar olmayan geni\u015f bir R<\/em>\u00e4u<\/em>berromane<\/em> (\u201chaydut romanlar\u0131\u201d) yaz\u0131n\u0131 oldu\u011funu yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.[21]<\/a> Bu romantizmin zaman\u0131 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ld\u0131r (!), ve -13. ya da 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n efsanevi kahraman\u0131- Robin Hood\u2019un \u201c\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc\u201dn\u00fcn \u00fczerinden de y\u00fczy\u0131llar ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. B\u0131rakal\u0131m Fransa\u2019y\u0131, edebi bir kategori olarak b\u00f6yle bir \u201cedebi t\u00fcr\u201d, o d\u00f6nemde herhalde d\u00fcnyada hi\u00e7bir yerde de yoktur.<\/p>\n

Orta \u00c7a\u011f Almanya\u2019s\u0131n\u0131n \u201ckibar haydut\u201d tak\u0131m\u0131, Almanlar\u0131n \u201csoyguncu \u015f\u00f6valyeleri\u201dnden ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildi[22]<\/a> ve Almanya, onlardan y\u00fczy\u0131llar sonras\u0131nda bile vazge\u00e7miyor, vazge\u00e7emiyordu!<\/p>\n

\"\"Zaten Schiller\u2019in \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7an ilk sahne eseri Die R<\/em>\u00e4<\/em>uber<\/em>\u2018in (\u201cHaydutlar\u201d, sahneleni\u015fi 1782) ba\u015fki\u015fisi Karl Moor, soylu ve zengin bir aileden geldi\u011fi gibi, cesur, sa\u011fduyulu ve bilge bir ki\u015filiktir, \u201columlu kahraman\u201dd\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Tarihsel oyun ve romanlar, tarihi halka yans\u0131t\u0131yor, Cermenleri tarihleriyle bulu\u015fturuyordu. Resim sanat\u0131 da neredeyse tarih ressamc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong>na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n

D\u00fc\u015fsel ve ataerkil \u00f6zellikleriyle hayranl\u0131k uyand\u0131ran Alman \u015fiiri, \u0131srarla ve ars\u0131zca g\u00fcndeme oturtulmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Do\u011faya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f, Gotik ve egzotik \u00f6zellikleri olan her \u015feyin \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131yla birle\u015fiyordu. Tantrizm ve teozofizm[23]<\/a> \u00fcstadlar\u0131 her yerde s\u00f6z sahibiydi.<\/p>\n

Efsaneler ve masallar, Cermen kabilelerin barbarl\u0131k d\u00f6nemleri, folklor, halk \u015fark\u0131lar\u0131 vb. yeni toplumun, birle\u015fmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ve sonralar\u0131 \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde birle\u015fecek olan Alman toplumunun s\u00fcrekli \u00f6n\u00fcne s\u00fcr\u00fclmekteydi. Cermen kabilelerinin y\u00f6netimlerinin m\u00fckemmel ve demokratik oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemekle eski ve \u201cmutlu d\u00f6nemler\u201de \u00f6zlem yarat\u0131l\u0131yordu. Orta \u00c7a\u011f\u0131n yeniden ke\u015ffi, Orta \u00c7a\u011f hanedanlar\u0131na \u00f6yk\u00fcnme (\u00f6rne\u011fin, Stauferlere[24]<\/a>), atalar edebiyat\u0131, nostalji, destanlar; b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar, halk\u0131n soya dayanan bir imparatorlu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmesini sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. Atalara Tanr\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan ba\u011f\u0131\u015flanm\u0131\u015f \u201c3 G\u201d, Gnad, Gl\u00fcck, Gwin<\/em> (inayet, \u015fans, kazan\u00e7) tekrar toplumun elindeydi.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Eski kanl\u0131 Alman sagalar\u0131 tekrarlan\u0131p durmaktayd\u0131. Romanslar ve Orta \u00c7a\u011f \u015f\u00f6valyelerinin kahramanl\u0131k \u00f6yk\u00fcleri yeniden moda olmu\u015ftu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Fransa\u2019dan \u00f6zenilerek Berlin\u2019de ayd\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00fcretim merkezleri olmu\u015f \u201csalon\u201dlar, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131na kadar eski Yunan uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffedi\u015fin mutlulu\u011funu ya\u015farken, y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131ndan sonra konu de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015fti.[25]<\/a> Almanlar\u0131n kendi mitolojileri, Yunan mitolojisi gibi Avrupa k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu varsay\u0131lan mitolojilerden ayr\u0131 oldu\u011fu bir yana, her bak\u0131mdan yeterli, dolu, zengin ve hatta onlardan \u00fcst\u00fcnd\u00fc! Mitos d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndan eski ve ger\u00e7ek kabile toplumunun d\u00fcnyas\u0131na ge\u00e7i\u015f kap\u0131s\u0131 aralan\u0131yordu.[26]<\/a><\/p>\n

Ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131lar baladlar topluyor, Grimm Karde\u015fler (Jacop ve Wilhelm[27]<\/a>) masallar derliyordu.<\/p>\n

B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131n \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa bir yatak olu\u015fturaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, hatta onu yarataca\u011f\u0131n\u0131[28]<\/a> belki o zaman kimse akl\u0131na getirmiyordu ama bu \u201cmasum\u201d d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin, \u00e7abalar\u0131n ve ak\u0131mlar\u0131n, bilimin \u201cetnoloji\u201d, \u201ctarih\u201d, \u201ck\u00fclt\u00fcrbilim\u201d, \u201cdilbilim\u201d, \u201ctoplumbilim\u201d, \u201cbiyoloji\u201d gibi dallar\u0131n\u0131n \u201cAlmanl\u0131k ihtiyac\u0131\u201d a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u015fekillendirilmeleri ile birle\u015fince, kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 tarih ve edebiyat ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca Cermenli\u011fin olumlu \u00f6zelliklerinin ke\u015ffedilmesi amac\u0131yla yap\u0131l\u0131nca, nas\u0131l bir sarmala d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, hangi boyutlara vard\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, toplumsal hayat\u0131n ne kadar geni\u015f alanlar\u0131n\u0131 kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve ne gibi ac\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar verdi\u011fini insanl\u0131k en \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 \u015fekliyle 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda g\u00f6recekti.<\/p>\n

\u201cKahrolas\u0131 Yahudiler\u201d ve \u201choliganlar\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c<\/em>Alman Yahudisi, \u00f6zellikle, genelde politik \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fme yoklu\u011fu ve devletin a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a telaffuz edilen H\u0131ristiyanc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yad\u0131r.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

K. Marx[29]<\/a><\/p>\n

Halka hitap yetene\u011fi y\u00fcksek \u201cRomantizm\u201d, \u201c\u00fcst\u00fcn \u0131rk\u201d\u0131 ke\u015ffeden \u201cromantik toplumbilim\u201d haline gelmi\u015fti. Pancermenizm savunuluyordu. \u201cD\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u201d \u00f6nemlile\u015fiyor, \u201cd\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131klara kar\u015f\u0131 tedbirler\u201d g\u00fcndeme geliyor, yava\u015f yava\u015f yeni d\u00fc\u015fmanlar ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor ve Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Almanya\u2019ya verdi\u011fi zararlarla Yahudilerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na tekrar tekrar dikkat \u00e7ekiliyordu! Bu y\u00fczden \u201cFrans\u0131zlar ve Yahudiler giremez\u201d yollu ilkeleri (hatta kap\u0131yaz\u0131lar\u0131) olan Cermen kul\u00fcpleri ve dernekleri kuruluyordu. Frans\u0131zlar, zaten Almanya d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 \u201chas\u0131m bir \u00fclke\u201dye mensuptular, Yahudiler ise \u201ceskiden beri\u201d \u201cAlmanl\u0131k\u201da kar\u015f\u0131<\/strong> bir \u201cmillet\u201dti!<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u201cBarbar d\u00f6nemler\u201d bile ulusal kimlik yolunun d\u00f6\u015fenmesinde i\u015fe yarayacakt\u0131. Gotik s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn bir Cermen kavminden geliyor olmas\u0131, onun \u201cAlman mal\u0131\u201d oldu\u011funun iddia edilmesinin dayana\u011f\u0131 oldu. (Gotik mimariye bir \u00f6rnek: Cologne Katedrali)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Napoleon d\u00f6nemi sonras\u0131ndaki \u201cRestorasyon g\u00fc\u00e7leri\u201d, Frans\u0131z i\u015fgali s\u0131ras\u0131nda Yahudilere tan\u0131nan haklar\u0131 birer birer geri alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Almanlar\u0131n ve \u201cAlmanc\u0131l\u0131k\u201d\u0131 savunanlar\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fcnde Yahudiler Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n be\u015finci kolu olarak ayn\u0131 zamanda \u201cvatan haini\u201dydi. Edilgen ve cesaretsiz Alman Yahudilerinin ne Frans\u0131zlarla i\u015fbirli\u011fi yapt\u0131klar\u0131ndan s\u00f6z edilebilirdi, ne de hainlikle bir ilgileri vard\u0131, ama ne gam, g\u00fcnah ke\u00e7isine ihtiya\u00e7 duyuluyordu ve onlar bir kere g\u00fcnah ke\u00e7isi yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Hamburg\u2019da Yahudi mahalleleri ve Yahudilere ait i\u015fyerleri yak\u0131l\u0131p yak\u0131l\u0131p ya\u011fmaland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Almanya tam bir \u201csessiz \u00e7o\u011funluk\u201dtur!<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019n\u0131n geneline bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, \u201cAlmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n merkezi\u201dndeki Prusya, Yahudilere sald\u0131rganl\u0131kta ba\u015froldeydi. Elbette bunun da bir ekonomipoliti\u011fi vard\u0131; birincisi, (Avusturya hari\u00e7) Almanya\u2019daki Yahudilerin \u00fc\u00e7te ikisi Prusya\u2019da ya\u015f\u0131yordu, ikincisi, Yahudi n\u00fcfusun y\u00fczde 60\u2019\u0131 kentlerde oturuyordu, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc, bunlar\u0131n y\u00fczde 80\u2019i b\u00fcy\u00fck burjuva ve hali vakti yerinde olanlard\u0131, d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc, n\u00fcfusun y\u00fczde 5\u2019ini olu\u015fturmalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen b\u00fct\u00fcn kentlerde \u201ctoplam gelir vergisinin \u00fc\u00e7te birini [bazen daha fazlas\u0131n\u0131] \u00f6demekteydiler\u201d.[30]<\/a> Tabii en \u00f6nemlisi, ka\u00e7an\u0131n kurtuldu\u011fu bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda Yahudi m\u00fclkleri, varl\u0131klar\u0131, servetleri orada kalacakt\u0131! (Bu b\u00fcy\u00fck \u201cka\u00e7\u0131\u015fma\u201dya az ileride de\u011finilecektir.)<\/p>\n

Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te Yahudiler, ya ayd\u0131nlanacak, ya asimile olacak, ya da \u201cd\u00fcnyevi Yahudi siyaseti\u201dne gireceklerdi. Ba\u015fka bir se\u00e7enek bulunmuyordu.<\/p>\n

\u0130lki 1819\u2019da Berlin\u2019de \u201cYahudi K\u00fclt\u00fcr Bilim Derne\u011fi\u201d olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan \u201csavunma kurulu\u015flar\u0131\u201dn\u0131n bir\u00e7ok ba\u015fka \u00f6rne\u011finin di\u011fer b\u00fcy\u00fck kentlerde g\u00f6r\u00fclmesi gerilimi art\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Tepkiler ve sald\u0131r\u0131lar o kadar yo\u011fundu ki, Yahudi dernekleri kapanmakla kalmad\u0131, Berlin\u2019deki derne\u011fin kurucular\u0131 hayatlar\u0131na, H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa ge\u00e7erek ve vaftiz olarak devam etmek zorunda kald\u0131lar.[31]<\/a> Derneklerin \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 Yahudi k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc ve tarih dergileri de \u00e7ok k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra \u00e7\u0131kamaz olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Asl\u0131nda \u201cfelaketin ta kendisi Yahudilik\u201din herhangi bir k\u00f6t\u00fc niyeti yoktu, Yahudiler hi\u00e7 vatan haini de de\u011fillerdi, ama bu d\u00f6nemde Yahudiliklerine ve Museviliklerine sar\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 da g\u00f6rmek gerekir. Dayan\u0131\u015fma ihtiyac\u0131 i\u00e7ine giren Yahudi kitleleri sosyal \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeler yan\u0131nda kutsal mek\u00e2nlar\u0131n\u0131 da art\u0131rma yoluna girdiler. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n bir\u00e7ok yerinde yeni sinagoglar in\u015fa edildi. 1938\u2019de yak\u0131l\u0131p yok edilecek olan Wiesbaden\u2019daki muhte\u015fem sinagogun yap\u0131m\u0131, 1850\u2019li y\u0131llarda ba\u015flayan giri\u015fimlerle 60\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda sonu\u00e7land\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Hegel\u2019in d\u00fcnya tarihi i\u00e7ine oturtulmu\u015f \u201cYahudilerin tarihi\u201d derslerinin, Yahudilerden \u015fu veya bu \u015fekilde olumsuz s\u00f6z etmeyen b\u00fct\u00fcn akademisyenlerin konu\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n ve yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok geni\u015f ilgi g\u00f6rmesi, Yahudiler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6z\u00fcne sar\u0131lma olarak de\u011ferlendirilmeli ve savunma g\u00fcd\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn belirtileri olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmelidir.<\/p>\n

E\u015fit gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fckleri, di\u011fer yurtta\u015flara e\u015f ve e\u015fit say\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 \u00fclkelerde (Fransa, \u0130talya vb.) Yahudiler, dinsel kural, gelenek ve \u00f6devlerine ald\u0131rmaz olurken, Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n tehdit, bask\u0131 ve sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda Alman Yahudilerinin kendi cemaatleri i\u00e7inde dayan\u0131\u015fma iste\u011fi g\u00f6stermesi, daha do\u011frusu dayan\u0131\u015fmaya ihtiya\u00e7 duymas\u0131, dinsel yap\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n koruyuculu\u011funa s\u0131\u011f\u0131nmalar\u0131 hi\u00e7 anla\u015f\u0131lmaz de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n

Modern Yahudili\u011fin sonradan s\u00f6zc\u00fcs\u00fc gibi an\u0131lacak modern Judaisti\u011fin kurucusu Leopold Zuntz ile \u00f6\u011frencisi Michael Sachs, Tevrat<\/em>\u2019\u0131 Almancaya \u00e7evirirler[32]<\/a>, ama Luther\u2019in \u0130ncil<\/em>\u2019i Almancaya \u00e7evirmesinin ne kadar yararl\u0131 oldu\u011funu belirterek! Bunu vurgulayarak mazur g\u00f6r\u00fclmeyi ama\u00e7lamaktad\u0131rlar, yani yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6t\u00fc, olumsuz g\u00f6r\u00fclmemesi i\u00e7in \u201cen b\u00fcy\u00fck Alman\u201dlardan birini \u00f6rnek alm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmek istemektedirler, \u00e7evirileri i\u00e7in ona s\u0131\u011f\u0131nmaktad\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n

Yahudiler Alman diline verdikleri ya da verecekleri zarar y\u00fcz\u00fcnden de \u00e7ok zararl\u0131d\u0131rlar! Hi\u00e7 \u00fc\u015fenmeden bunun ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131 yapanlar, Yahudilerin konu\u015ftu\u011fu ve yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Almancan\u0131n Almancaya ne kadar b\u00fcy\u00fck bir tehdit oldu\u011funu iddia edenler, \u201culusal birlik i\u00e7in bu tehlikeye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u201d\u0131n zorunlulu\u011funu savunurlar.<\/p>\n

1843\u2019te Prusya Kral\u0131 IV. Friedrich \u201cAlman varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6k\u00fcn\u00fc kurutmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan hain Yahudiler\u201di k\u0131nad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00e7ok takdir edildi.<\/p>\n

\u201c1848 bahar\u0131nda ve 1873 ekonomik krizinde\u201d her olumsuzlu\u011fun nedeni Yahudiler<\/strong> izlendi, takip edildi, kovaland\u0131 ve yakaland\u0131.<\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fck kentlerde \u201cYahudi Yeterlili\u011fi Yasas\u0131\u201d ge\u00e7erliydi. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Frankfurt\u2019ta Yahudi toplumu 500 aileden fazla olamaz, y\u0131lda en fazla 14 Yahudi \u00e7ift evlenebilirdi. Yasan\u0131n \u201c\u00f6nemine\u201d dikkat \u00e7ekiliyor, yasa \u201cgere\u011fi\u201d kontroller ve bask\u0131nlar birbirini izliyordu. 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortas\u0131ndaki korkun\u00e7 veba salg\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n (1347-48) sorumlusunun -T\u00fcrklerle birlikte- Yahudiler oldu\u011fu, o d\u00f6nemlerde \u201ci\u00e7me sular\u0131na zehir atarak hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131klar\u0131\u201d \u201chat\u0131rlan\u0131yor\u201d, Yahudilerin \u201ck\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fckleri\u201d d\u00f6ne d\u00f6ne anlat\u0131l\u0131yordu.[33]<\/a> Devlet ve Kilise i\u015fbirli\u011fiyle y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen Yahudi kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 propaganda o derece sistemli, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve etkiliydi ki, \u201cYahudi sorunu\u201dnu Yahudiler de \u201csorun\u201d olarak g\u00f6rmeye ba\u015flad\u0131lar! \u00dcnl\u00fc Yahudi ayd\u0131nlar\u0131, \u201cari \u0131rk\u0131n en se\u00e7kini\u201d olan Almanlar\u0131n Yahudileri Yahudilikten kurtarmas\u0131n\u0131 isteyen kitaplar bile yazd\u0131lar. Yahudilerden yaln\u0131z Almanlar de\u011fil art\u0131k Yahudiler de nefret ediyordu. Bu d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131klar\u0131n ve \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bask\u0131lar\u0131n Yahudi kitleleri \u00fczerindeki bir ba\u015fka sonucu, 500 bine yak\u0131n Yahudinin bask\u0131lardan kurtulmak ve g\u00fcvenlik amac\u0131yla H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa ge\u00e7mek istemesiydi.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Alman kimya end\u00fcstrisinin geli\u015fimini g\u00f6steren bir tablo (1881).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Vaftiz olan Yahudiler, Yahudilerin amans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131ndan daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k sergiliyordu. Hatta Yahudileri en fazla karalayanlar\u0131n, onlara en fazla sald\u0131ranlar\u0131n \u201cbu Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131\u201d olduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek bile m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fc. Avusturya\u2019da Pancermen hareketin program\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlayan komitede \u00fc\u00e7 de Yahudi bulunuyordu.[34]<\/a> Alman toplumuna girebilmek ve kabul edilebilmek i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan bu \u00e7abalar pek sonu\u00e7 vermiyordu ki, bir y\u00fczy\u0131ldan fazla s\u00fcre ge\u00e7tikten sonra Arendt, \u201chem Alman, hem Yahudi oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyebilecek tek Alman Yahudisi\u201d, \u201c\u00f6z\u00fcmsenmeyi ba\u015farm\u0131\u015f tek ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 \u00f6rnek\u201d Heine\u2019dir, diyecekti.<\/p>\n

11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferleri ba\u015flarken yap\u0131lan Yahudi k\u0131y\u0131mlar\u0131ndan kurtulmak isteyen Yahudiler as\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131 ink\u00e2r etmi\u015fler, Musevili\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 olduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemi\u015fler, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Ren Nehri Yahudileri Nas\u0131riye\u2019de \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesiyle ilgileri olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6ne d\u00f6ne anlatm\u0131\u015flar, \u0130sa\u2019y\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcrenlere kar\u015f\u0131 olduklar\u0131na yemin billah etmi\u015fler, ama sald\u0131r\u0131lardan gene de kurtulamam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l Almanya Yahudileri de ne yaparlarsa yaps\u0131nlar ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde hedef olmaktan kurtulamayacaklard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bunlar\u0131n sonucu olarak Almanya\u2019dan d\u00f6rt bir tarafa kitlesel Yahudi g\u00f6\u00e7leri ya\u015fand\u0131. \u00d6nemli bir miktar da Osmanl\u0131 devletine s\u0131\u011f\u0131nd\u0131. T\u00fcrkiye\u2019deki dili Yiddi\u015f olan A\u015fkenaziler bu d\u00f6nemde Almanya\u2019dan ka\u00e7anlard\u0131r. Bu iklim, Siyonizmin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131, teorile\u015fti\u011fi, patlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir temel oldu. (60\u2019lar\u0131n ortalar\u0131nda Filistin\u2019e gitmeler ba\u015flayacakt\u0131.)<\/p>\n

1873 y\u0131l\u0131nda ya\u015fanan ekonomik bunal\u0131mdan, toplam n\u00fcfusun y\u00fczde 1\u2019ini bile olu\u015fturmayan Yahudiler sorumlu tutuldu.[35]<\/a> \u201cUluslararas\u0131 borsa Yahudileri\u201d gene yapaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131! Sonraki bunal\u0131mlarda (1878-79 ve 1916 bunal\u0131mlar\u0131) antisemitizmin dozunun inan\u0131lmaz \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclere \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclecekti.<\/p>\n

1886\u2019da Kassel\u2019da Deutsche Antisemitische Vereinigung<\/strong> kuruldu. Nesnel bir neden yokken bir grup insandan nefret etme olarak da tan\u0131mlanabilen \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k, Almanya\u2019da tam kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 buluyordu.<\/p>\n

Tekelle\u015fme, orta s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131 ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck burjuvaziyi ezerken kitlesel bir ho\u015fnutsuzlu\u011fu beraberinde getiriyordu. Aradaki bu s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n tepkisini, Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 k\u00f6r\u00fckleyerek, ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcnde k\u0131skan\u0131lan, zengin olanlar\u0131na haset duyulan savunmas\u0131z bu kesime y\u00f6neltmek, yarar sa\u011flayacak diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Evet, yarar da sa\u011fl\u0131yordu, kitleler pe\u015finde olmalar\u0131 gereken \u015feylerden uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu. Ama Almanya neler kaybetti\u011fini ve kaybedece\u011fini, ne kadar k\u00f6t\u00fc \u00f6zellikler kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve kazanaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hesap edemiyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Besteci Richard Wagner (1813-1883), gen\u00e7li\u011finde sosyalist hareketin bir eylemcisiyken, hayat\u0131n\u0131n son d\u00f6nemlerini Bavyera kral\u0131n\u0131n saray\u0131nda ge\u00e7irmi\u015f, devrimci fikirlerinden uzakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Hitler d\u00f6neminde, Alman tarihine yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu g\u00f6ndermeler y\u00fcz\u00fcnden ba\u015f tac\u0131 edildi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

D\u00f6nemin mimar\u0131 Bismarck kendini Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda tutuyordu, asl\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k dalgas\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcnmek i\u015fine geliyordu, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc b\u00fct\u00fcn ekonomik planlar\u0131nda Yahudi sermayesine dayan\u0131yor, b\u00fct\u00fcn borsa oyunlar\u0131nda Yahudi borsac\u0131 ve bankerlerle i\u015fbirli\u011fi yap\u0131yordu. Yeni devletin ekonomisini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek, mali sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmek zorundayd\u0131. Ayr\u0131ca bir devlet adam\u0131n\u0131n Fransa ve Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, d\u00f6neme uyum i\u00e7in yeterliydi de.[36]<\/a><\/p>\n

Asl\u0131nda tam bir Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131yd\u0131. Bunu kan\u0131tlayan s\u00f6zleri bulunuyor. Ama d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da \u00e7ok \u015fey gibi, her \u015fey gibi, hesaplar \u00fczerine kuruluydu. Servetini ve sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 emanet etti\u011fi iki ki\u015fi Yahudi\u2019ydi. Tefeci-banker Bleichschr\u00f6der ve Dr. Cohen. Onlar s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda antisemit olmuyordu.<\/p>\n

\u0130ktidardaki a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kaybeden soyluluk, Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekerken, ulusal devlete, modern devlete muhalefetini de yapm\u0131\u015f oluyordu. Aristokrasinin, devlet y\u00f6netimindeki feodal art\u0131klar\u0131n temizlenmesinden ve feodal al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar\u0131n k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir \u015fekilde terk edilmek istenmesinden ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f \u201cBismarck muhalefeti\u201d, ikinci ve b\u00fcy\u00fck hamlesini bununla yapt\u0131. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u015fans\u00f6lye olduktan sonra Yahudilerle yak\u0131n temasta olma zorunlulu\u011funun Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan uzak durmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7mas\u0131 bir zaaf\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015fti; soylular, Bismarck\u2019a ve devlete buradan vuracaklard\u0131, vuruyorlard\u0131. Soyluluk, iktidar\u0131n ve ulusal devletin uygulamas\u0131n\u0131n kendisine sundu\u011fu olana\u011f\u0131 bu sefer Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla de\u011ferlendiriyor, Bismarck\u2019\u0131 buradan s\u0131k\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yordu. Gene de Yahudili\u011fe d\u00fc\u015fman soylular aras\u0131nda Yahudilerin paras\u0131na takla atanlar bulunmaktayd\u0131. Ve bu, soylulu\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 olan kesimlerin, burjuvazinin ve orta s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n, aristokrasiyi Yahudi dostu olarak su\u00e7lamas\u0131nda ellerinde koz oluyordu. Zaten daha \u00f6nceleri de soyluluk (k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmsemek i\u00e7in \u201cunvan soylulu\u011fu\u201d deniyordu) her f\u0131rsatta k\u0131nan\u0131yordu; ge\u00e7mi\u015fte \u201csaf kalmam\u0131\u015f\u201dt\u0131, \u201cYahudi kad\u0131nlar\u0131yla paralar\u0131 i\u00e7in evlenerek [\u0131rksal] de\u011fer[ler]ini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u201d.[37]<\/a><\/p>\n

Rothschild gibi adlar\u0131n Bismarck d\u00f6neminde uluslararas\u0131 \u00fcn kazanmas\u0131, \u201c\u00f6zellikle ekonomik kay\u0131p ya\u015fayan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck giri\u015fimciler ve alt orta s\u0131n\u0131f \u00fcyeleri[nin] Yahudilere h\u0131n\u00e7 besle\u201dmesine yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.[38]<\/a><\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devrimi 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca Fransa\u2019daki Yahudileri Frans\u0131zla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, tekil \u00f6rnekler \u015feklinde ve d\u00fczeyinde de\u011fil, b\u00fct\u00fcn Yahudi toplumunu kapsayan durumdayd\u0131. Frans\u0131z-Alman Sava\u015f\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131na gelindi\u011finde ayr\u0131ms\u0131z b\u00fct\u00fcn Yahudiler \u201cvatan savunmas\u0131\u201dna dahil olmu\u015flard\u0131. Oysa b\u00f6yle bir olguyu \u201cDevrim d\u0131\u015f\u0131\u201d kalan Almanya i\u00e7in d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek s\u00f6z konusu olamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131lmas\u0131nda Protestan Kilisesine de \u00f6nemli g\u00f6revler d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Nedeni, \u201cpolitik devletin, devlet olarak devletin var olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Almanya\u2019da Yahudi sorunu[nun], tamamen teolojik<\/em> bir sorun\u201d[39]<\/a> olmas\u0131yd\u0131. Saray vaizi ve H\u0131ristiyan Sosyalist \u0130\u015f\u00e7i Partisinin kurucusu Adolf St\u00f6cker (1835-1909) dinsel alanda antisemitizmin ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekerken, Yahudi kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 Protestan \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeleri b\u00fcy\u00fcterek bir \u00e7at\u0131 alt\u0131nda toplamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. Bunda ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olamad\u0131 ama Almanya\u2019da Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na Kilisenin katk\u0131s\u0131 konusundaki yararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ayd\u0131nlara da bula\u015ft\u0131. F. Schlegel, o \u00f6nemli \u201cayd\u0131n\u201d, yak\u0131n \u00e7evresiyle birlikte, Frans\u0131z Devrimi yanda\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan k\u0131v\u0131rt\u0131p Katolikli\u011fi kutsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcnlerde Yahudileri zaten Almanya\u2019da Almanya\u2019ya hedef g\u00f6stermi\u015fti. \u015eimdi ise b\u00f6yle s\u00f6ylemler, dalgalar halinde bas\u0131nda yazarlar ve \u00fcniversitelerde akademisyenler aras\u0131nda da g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.[40]<\/a> Cermenleri bozan, Katolisizmle birlikte Yahudilikti! 1875\u2019te kurulan ve \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli kitle deste\u011fine sahip olan \u201cRoma\u2019dan Kurtulma\u201d (Los von Rome) hareketinin program\u0131nda Almanya ve Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n Yahudilerden ar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 vard\u0131. 1883\u2019te Reichstag\u2019a 16 milletvekili sokmay\u0131 ba\u015faran antisemit bir parti 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131na kadar varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve etkisini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrecekti.<\/p>\n

Hi\u00e7bir yerde \u201cAvusturya\u2019da oldu\u011fu kadar devlete hizmet ver[me]mi\u015f\u201d olan Yahudiler, \u201cbask\u0131n milliyet\u201d haline gelmi\u015f olan Almanlar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda savunmas\u0131zd\u0131. Avusturya ekonomisine hakim olmalar\u0131na (Yahudi \u201cdevlet\u201d bankerleri her d\u00f6nemde varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyorlard\u0131, Rothschildler devlet lisans\u0131na sahipti vb.) ra\u011fmen, su\u00e7lanmalar\u0131na yetecek arg\u00fcman vard\u0131; \u201cYahudi ulusal grubu \u00f6tekilerle kayna\u015famam\u0131\u015f\u201dt\u0131, \u201ctoplumun b\u00fct\u00fcn s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131ndan farkl\u0131la\u015f\u201dm\u0131\u015flard\u0131 vb.<\/p>\n

\u201cMonar\u015fiyle de a\u00e7\u0131k bir \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmaya giren her ulusal grup, kavgas\u0131na Yahudilere sald\u0131rarak ba\u015f\u201dl\u0131yordu.[41]<\/a> Avusturya\u2019da Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Almanya\u2019dakinden daha da \u015fiddetli oldu.<\/p>\n

Irk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk teorisyeni Fransa\u2019daki ayd\u0131n-diplomat Gobineau[42]<\/a>, ba\u015fta Wagner[43]<\/a> ve Chamberlain[44]<\/a> olmak \u00fczere bir\u00e7ok ayd\u0131n ve devrimci taraf\u0131ndan kutsand\u0131. Irk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla harmanlanm\u0131\u015f ulus\u00e7uluk Almanya\u2019n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmez bir rengi oluyordu art\u0131k.<\/p>\n

Alman \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n Yahudi kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 rengi tarihin bir miras\u0131yd\u0131. Ger\u00e7i Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa\u2019da, hatta her yerde vard\u0131, ama Almanya\u2019n\u0131nki \u201c\u00f6zel y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckler y\u00f6nelterek ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131k yapma\u201d ve \u201cYahudileri i\u00e7ine kabul etmeme\u201d noktalar\u0131nda \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli farklar ta\u015f\u0131yordu. \u201cMakbul olanlar\u201d\u0131 (zenginler, sanat\u00e7\u0131lar) da dahil olmak \u00fczere b\u00fct\u00fcn Yahudilere, y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Berlin\u2019den Leipzig\u2019e gittiklerinde \u201cpazara g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fclen bir \u00f6k\u00fcz i\u00e7in \u00f6denenle ayn\u0131 miktarda vergi\u201d \u00f6detilmi\u015fti. 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonuna kadar bile Yahudiler vatanda\u015fl\u0131k haklar\u0131<\/strong>na sahip olamam\u0131\u015flard\u0131.[45]<\/a><\/p>\n

Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n Almanlar\u0131n \u201ckan\u0131nda\u201d oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek i\u00e7in bile nedenler bulunuyordu. Grimm karde\u015flerin masallar\u0131nda yer alan Yahudilere kar\u015f\u0131t anlat\u0131mlar, Alman toplumunun Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok eski zamanlardan geldi\u011fini ve olduk\u00e7a k\u00f6kl\u00fc oldu\u011funu g\u00f6steriyordu.[46]<\/a><\/p>\n

Almanya gelene\u011fi, Yahudilerin H\u0131ristiyanla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131, Yahudilerin kendi geleneklerinden kopmas\u0131n\u0131 ve Yahudili\u011fi reddetmesini de istemezdi. Hatta Yahudilerin din de\u011fi\u015ftirmesinden ve Almanla\u015fmas\u0131ndan korkulurdu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc o zaman kar\u0131\u015fma olur, Almanlar\u0131n safl\u0131klar\u0131 bozulurdu! Yahudiler, Yahudi olarak kalmal\u0131, Yahudi olarak bilinmeli<\/strong>ydiler. II. Friedrich, Yahudilerin toplu halde din de\u011fi\u015ftirmelerinin s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funu, aralar\u0131nda bunu tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 duydu\u011funda kayg\u0131yla, \u201cb\u00f6yle bir \u015feytanl\u0131k yapmayacaklar\u0131n\u0131 umar\u0131m\u201d demi\u015fti.[47]<\/a> IV. Friedrich Wilhelm[48]<\/a> de Yahudilerin \u201ckendilerini Yahudi olarak hissetmeye devam etmelerini\u201d, yani \u201cAlman\u201d olmaya istekli olmamalar\u0131n\u0131 ve buna yeltenmemelerini dilemekteydi![49]<\/a> Avrupa\u2019da bir\u00e7ok yerde (belki her yerde) Yahudilerden, hem din de\u011fi\u015ftirmeleri, hem geleneklerini b\u0131rakmalar\u0131, hem de Yahudilikten vazge\u00e7meleri istenir, onlara bunun i\u00e7in bask\u0131lar ve zorlamalar yap\u0131l\u0131rken ve bunlar her zaman her d\u00f6nemde ama\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015f, istenmi\u015f, dayat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015fken, Almanya\u2019da hep tersi olurdu ve oluyordu. Yahudiler Yahudi kal\u0131yor, H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa kolay kolay kabul edilmiyorlard\u0131. Alman olmamalar\u0131 i\u00e7in H\u0131ristiyan da olmamal\u0131yd\u0131lar. Yahudiler, Alman da olmamal\u0131yd\u0131, H\u0131ristiyan da.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Saray vaizi ve H\u0131ristiyan Sosyalist \u0130\u015f\u00e7i Partisinin kurucusu Adolf St\u00f6cker (1835-1909) dinsel alanda Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekiyordu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Almanya\u2019da her nas\u0131lsa H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa ge\u00e7mi\u015f Musevilerin Yahudi k\u00f6kenli olmalar\u0131 bir yana b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131yor, Yahudi as\u0131ll\u0131 olmalar\u0131 ortadan kalkm\u0131yor, k\u00f6kenleri bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc yok olmuyordu! Vaftiz de olmu\u015flard\u0131 ama \u201cger\u00e7ek H\u0131ristiyan\u201d de\u011fillerdi ve hi\u00e7bir zaman ger\u00e7ek H\u0131ristiyan say\u0131lmayacaklard\u0131. Yani Yahudilikleri ne kayboluyor, ne unutuluyordu! Musevi olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kanlar Yahudi kalmaya devam ediyordu.<\/p>\n

Almanlarla evlenen Yahudilerin \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131n ve daha sonraki ku\u015faklar\u0131n\u0131n Yahudilikleri, -belki biraz eksilmi\u015f olmakla birlikte- hi\u00e7bir zaman ortadan kalkmaz, Yahudilikten kurtulamazlard\u0131. Mischling<\/strong> denilen bu \u201cmelez\u201d ku\u015faklar i\u00e7in \u00f6zel uygulamalar yap\u0131l\u0131r, bunlar tam olarak belirlenmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, onlara mahsus i\u015fler vard\u0131.[50]<\/a> H\u0131ristiyan olan Musevilerin ve Mischlinglerin kay\u0131tlar\u0131 \u00f6zenle tutulur ve saklan\u0131rd\u0131. Hatta kaybolma veya yok edilme olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 kay\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011falt\u0131larak -biri kilise, di\u011ferleri resmi kurumlar olmak \u00fczere- iki-\u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 yerde tutulmas\u0131 da bir \u201c\u00f6nlem olarak\u201d uygulanmaktayd\u0131. Yahudi ge\u00e7mi\u015fin ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ise, limpieza de la sangre<\/strong> kural\u0131na g\u00f6re y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmekteydi.[51]<\/a><\/p>\n

Elbirli\u011fiyle yarat\u0131lan Alman \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c\u2018V\u00f6lkisch hareketten\u2019 al\u0131\u015f\u0131lageldi\u011fi \u00fczere milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fin, milli olan\u0131n bir etnik (\u2018\u0131rk\u00e7\u0131\u2019) kodlamas\u0131 vas\u0131tas\u0131yla anti-semitik u\u00e7la ve bunun \u00f6tesinde temel unsurlar\u0131 Almanya\u2019da romantizm ak\u0131m\u0131na dek takip edilebilen bir \u2018antimodern\u2019le ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olan bir bi\u00e7imi anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

S. Breuer[52]<\/a><\/p>\n

Durumdan g\u00f6rev \u00e7\u0131karanlar, ulusall\u0131k ve \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla ilgisi olmayan konular\u0131 ve ki\u015fileri de geli\u015fmenin hizmetine ko\u015fuyor, \u00e7arp\u0131tmalar birbirine ekleniyordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Hegel\u2019in devleti y\u00fcceltmesi[53]<\/a>, devletin bask\u0131 yapmas\u0131n\u0131 savundu\u011funa yorulacak, Hegel bu yorumla tan\u0131t\u0131lacakt\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Nietzsche\u2019nin \u201c\u00fcstinsan\u201d (\u00dcbermensch) kavram\u0131, Alman olmas\u0131 s\u00f6z konusu olan bir \u201c\u00fcst\u00fcn insan\u201da d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclecek, kendisi de (\u00fcstelik hi\u00e7bir zaman Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yapmamas\u0131na ve hatta Yahudiler i\u00e7in \u00e7ok olumlu de\u011ferlendirmeleri olmas\u0131na[54]<\/a> ra\u011fmen) Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ve Alman \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n simgelerinden biri haline getirilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lacak[55]<\/a> ve getirilecekti. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fc olmas\u0131na ve radikal bir Jakoben olarak tan\u0131nmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n Fichte, kimi yerde \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa kap\u0131 a\u00e7an s\u00f6ylemi, s\u00f6ylevlerindeki \u201cAlmanl\u0131k\u201da yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 vurgular y\u00fcz\u00fcnden -ve daha o zamanlardan Alman ulus\u00e7ulu\u011funun simgelerinden biri oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in-, \u00e7ok sonralar\u0131 Alman fa\u015fizminin babas\u0131 oldu\u011fu yolundaki yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmalara yol a\u00e7acak de\u011ferlendirmelerin i\u00e7ine al\u0131nacakt\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Frankfurtlu Stoltze\u2019nin bir \u015fiirinde yer alan, yabanc\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015far\u0131dan gelen insan oldu\u011fu \u015feklindeki yabanc\u0131l\u0131k tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n, d\u0131\u015far\u0131dan gelmedikleri halde Yahudileri de kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 iddia edilecekti.[56]<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"Almanya, Yahudilerin Avrupa\u2019da \u201culuslar aras\u0131nda bir ulus\u201d olmas\u0131n\u0131, kendi ulusuna ba\u015fka uluslar\u0131n m\u00fcdahale ve etkisine yol a\u00e7acak bir durumun s\u00f6ylemi yapma ucuzlu\u011funa d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Bu s\u00f6ylemin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 politikalar, bir d\u00f6nem sonra, \u201culus i\u00e7indeki bir ba\u015fka ulus\u201dun \u201cg\u00fcvenlik\u201d nedeniyle yok edilmesini de gerektiren politikalar\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Irk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 savunmaktan ka\u00e7\u0131nan \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131lar da yok de\u011fildi. Herder, bu kelimeyi kullanmamay\u0131 savunuyor, ba\u015fka bir kelime, kavram ar\u0131yordu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu kelime o zamana kadar hayvanlar i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, insanlar i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 uygun d\u00fc\u015fmezdi! \u201cSoylu bir kelime de\u011fil\u201ddi. \u201cIrk\u0131m\u0131z<\/strong>\u201ddan s\u00f6z edilmesi \u201chakaret gibi\u201dydi, \u201chakaret oluyor\u201ddu.<\/p>\n

1930\u2019da Hitler\u2019in 100. do\u011fum y\u0131l\u0131 an\u0131s\u0131na kitap bas\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 istedi\u011fi Hammerling, M\u00fcnih\u2019te \u015fair olarak tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f bir muhafazak\u00e2rd\u0131. Alman ulus\u00e7uluk anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fmesinde ve Pancermen ak\u0131m\u0131n temellendirilmesinde rol oynam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.[57]<\/a><\/p>\n

II. Wilhelm\u2019in tahta \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131, d\u00fc\u015fman arayan ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, kurban arayan \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha da k\u0131z\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. \u201cArkadan vurulan ve i\u00e7eriden ihanete u\u011frayan Almanya\u201d edebiyat\u0131 ba\u015flad\u0131. \u201cAlmanya Almanlar\u0131nd\u0131r\u201d slogan\u0131, klasik k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn kozmopolitli\u011fini ve evrenselcili\u011fini ele\u015ftirerek kendi muhafazak\u00e2r k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc yaratmaya ba\u015flayan bu d\u00f6nemin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcyd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

\"\"
D\u00f6nemin Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131tan iki karikat\u00fcr.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Grillparzer\u2019in \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra bulunan ve yay\u0131mlanan oyunu Toledolu Yahudi K\u0131z<\/em>, kral\u0131n Yahudi bir k\u0131za \u00e2\u015f\u0131k olmas\u0131nda k\u0131za hi\u00e7bir olumsuzluk y\u00fcklememesi nedeniyle yazar\u0131n \u201caforoz\u201d edilmesine ve oyununun hi\u00e7bir zaman sahnelenmemesine yol a\u00e7acakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l Almanya\u2019s\u0131, iki ideoloji, tarihi, s\u0131n\u0131flar aras\u0131ndaki m\u00fccadeleyle \u201c\u0131rklar aras\u0131nda do\u011fal bir m\u00fccadele\u201d \u015feklinde yorumlayan ideoloji aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7eki\u015fmeyle ge\u00e7ti. Birincisi, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 m\u00fccadelesinin yarat\u0131lmas\u0131 ve y\u00fckselmesine temel olurken, di\u011feri, devlet-\u201cgelenek\u201d i\u015fbirli\u011fiyle iktidarlar taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Her ikisinin de miras\u0131 sonraki tarihi zenginle\u015ftirecek, bug\u00fcnlere de gelmeyi sa\u011flayacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019da Fransa kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c[Almanya\u2019n\u0131n B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devriminde] G\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc yaln\u0131zca, Fransa\u2019daki \u2018Cermen-soya kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen haks\u0131z bir sava\u015f\u2019t\u0131. Devrim, Fransa\u2019daki Cermen-soyun bask\u0131ya u\u011framas\u0131ndan, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ise tehdit edilmesinden, sonra da Devrim taraf\u0131ndan askeri sald\u0131r\u0131ya u\u011framas\u0131ndan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildi! (\u2026)<\/em><\/p>\n

\u201cDevrimin \u2018kutsal\u2019 Marianne\u2019\u0131, Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n ve Devrimin kutsall\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn simgesiydi, ama Almanlar i\u00e7in \u2018Marianne\u2019 bir fahi\u015feydi.\u201d<\/em>[58]<\/a><\/p>\n

Almanya ve Fransa, iki \u00fclke, tarihleri boyunca (ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f zamanlar\u0131 olan 9. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan ba\u015flayarak) devletler olarak birbirlerine kar\u015f\u0131tt\u0131lar, hep birbirleriyle sava\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ama gene de toplumlar\u0131n birbirlerine d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131klar\u0131ndan s\u00f6z edilemezdi. Ancak Almanya\u2019da 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong> ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131 (haliyle Fransa\u2019da da -iki d\u00fcnya sava\u015f\u0131 nedeniyle- 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda).<\/p>\n

Fransa, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Avrupa\u2019da \u201ck\u00fclt\u00fcrel fetih\u00e7ili\u011fin\u201d sahibi ve merkeziydi. Ve bu \u201cfetih\u201d Avrupa\u2019da en \u00e7ok Almanya\u2019da belirgindi. \u201cAlman saraylar\u0131ndaki dil ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr Frans\u0131z idi\u201d[59]<\/a>, yay\u0131mlanan kitaplar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu Frans\u0131zcayd\u0131. Ancak \u201cAlmanya\u2019daki Fransa\u201d, devrimle ve Napoleon\u2019la birlikte k\u0131r\u0131lacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Fransa kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cAlmanl\u0131k\u201d\u0131 yaratt\u0131 denebilir, bu, ayn\u0131 zamanda, on y\u0131llar boyunca kar\u015f\u0131-Frans\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n topra\u011f\u0131 oldu. \u201cYahudili\u011fin arkas\u0131ndaki Napoleon\u201d, \u00e7ok nedenle i\u015fe yaram\u0131\u015ft\u0131r!<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Alman topraklar\u0131nda at ko\u015fturmas\u0131 ve Almanya\u2019y\u0131 bi\u00e7imlendirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fini ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131rken, Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na da yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Zaten \u00e9<\/strong>migre<\/strong>ler[60]<\/a>, Frank k\u00f6kenli aristokrasi d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki halkla hesapla\u015fm\u0131\u015f olarak \u201cFrans\u0131z\u201dlara ve Gallo-Roman halka d\u00fc\u015fmand\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden, Almanya\u2019da Frans\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa, Fransa\u2019ya ve \u201cdevrim\u201de kar\u015f\u0131 Cermenli\u011fi y\u00fcceltirken Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fine ters ve marazi bir \u015fekilde katk\u0131da bulunuyor, ayn\u0131 zamanda, intikamc\u0131 bir tutumla Fransa\u2019y\u0131 ve devrimi lanetliyorlard\u0131. B\u00f6ylece ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f olan d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k, b\u00fct\u00fcn y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca \u00e7e\u015fitli olaylar, \u00e7eki\u015fmeler ve sava\u015flarla beslendi, b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fc, bunlar sayesinde iyice serpildi.<\/p>\n

Fransa ile Prusya aras\u0131nda \u201cRen sorunu\u201d[61]<\/a> dolay\u0131s\u0131yla ya\u015fanan gerilim, Fransa kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131 ve doru\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. D\u00f6nemin \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fc\u201d, \u201cilerici\u201d ak\u0131mlar\u0131 da kendilerini Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen \u015foven etkilerden ay\u0131ram\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bunun en somut \u00f6rne\u011fi ayd\u0131nlar aras\u0131ndaki \u201cTendence Ak\u0131m\u0131\u201d idi.[62]<\/a> Bu ak\u0131m ulusalc\u0131 duygular\u0131 dile getiriyordu ama g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc b\u00fcy\u00fck kitlesel ilgi, Almanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 azd\u0131rmaktan, Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 beslemekten ba\u015fka bir sonu\u00e7 vermiyordu. Fallersleben\u2019in, \u201cDeutschland, Deutschland \u00fcber alles<\/em>\u201d dizesinin de i\u00e7inde ge\u00e7ti\u011fi \u015fiiri (\u201cLied der Deutschen\u201d) o derece yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131 ki, bir daha unutulmad\u0131. Sonradan Alman ulusal mar\u015f\u0131 olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Grillparzer\u2019in \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra yay\u0131mlanan oyunu Toledolu Yahudi K\u0131z, kral\u0131n Yahudi bir k\u0131za \u00e2\u015f\u0131k olmas\u0131nda k\u0131za hi\u00e7bir olumsuzluk y\u00fcklememesi nedeniyle yazar\u0131n \u201caforoz\u201d edilmesine ve oyununun hi\u00e7bir zaman sahnelenmemesine yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1890\u2019da \u201ck\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn ba\u015fkenti Paris\u201dten gelen nat\u00fcralizme kar\u015f\u0131 bir bro\u015f\u00fcrle sava\u015f a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131. Zola[63]<\/a> lanetlendi, Frans\u0131z olmas\u0131 yetmiyormu\u015f gibi, ayn\u0131 zamanda Yahudi dostuydu! Westfalya Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131 (1648) sonras\u0131nda Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Almanya \u00fczerinde s\u00f6z sahibi durumu Almanlar\u0131 \u00e7ok \u00f6fkelendirmi\u015f, 1674 ve 1688 y\u0131llar\u0131nda Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n Almanya\u2019n\u0131n kendilerine kom\u015fu b\u00f6lgelerinde, \u00f6zellikle Pfalz\u2019da yapt\u0131klar\u0131 k\u0131y\u0131mlar ve ya\u011fmalar zaten Fransa ve Frans\u0131z korkusunu \u00e7ok y\u00fckseltmi\u015fti. Fransa Almanya\u2019ya her zaman, kinlendirecek bir \u015fekilde yukar\u0131dan ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmseyerek bakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Fransa\u2019ya duyulan hayranl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 eziklik, bunlar\u0131n Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131n miras\u0131 olan tepkileriyle birle\u015fip, nefret olarak hortluyordu. U\u00e7 noktalara savrulma o derecedeydi ve o kadar yayg\u0131nd\u0131 ki, Wagner, 1870 Frans\u0131z-Alman sava\u015f\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 alamam\u0131\u015f ve Alman toplar\u0131n\u0131n Paris\u2019i bombalayarak yerle bir etmesini, Parislilerin \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmelerini dilemi\u015f, Paris halk\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7l\u0131k ve sefalet i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015fmesinden duydu\u011fu sevinci anlatan bir de fars yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fck tarih\u00e7i von Treitschke, Frans\u0131zlara kar\u015f\u0131 olabilmek u\u011fruna tarihi \u00e7arp\u0131tmaktan \u00e7ekinmemi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

\u201cFrans\u0131z edebiyat\u0131\u201d, \u201cFrans\u0131z sanat\u0131\u201d d\u00f6nemi art\u0131k bitmi\u015fti, \u201cart\u0131k gelecek, Alman edebiyat\u0131n\u0131nd\u0131r\u201d! Yaln\u0131zca b\u00f6yle d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmekteydi.<\/p>\n

Herder ve \u00e7evresi zaten Frans\u0131zcan\u0131n bir salon dili olarak \u201cahlaks\u0131z ve ikiy\u00fczl\u00fc bir dil\u201d oldu\u011funu \u00e7ok \u00f6nceleri ilan etmi\u015fti ya, Goethe ta ne zaman, yay\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f \u0130talya Gezi G\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc<\/em>\u2019ndeki Frans\u0131zca s\u00f6zc\u00fckleri \u00fc\u015fenmeden ay\u0131klam\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ya, II. Friedrich\u2019in Berlin Akademisi, kurucusu \u00f6l\u00fcr \u00f6lmez Frans\u0131zcadan Almancaya tam d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ya, k\u0131rk y\u0131ld\u0131r Almanya\u2019da Frans\u0131zca kitap art\u0131k bas\u0131lmamaktayd\u0131 ya, hep bunlar hat\u0131rlanmakta, vurgulanmakta ve bunlar \u00fczerinde durulmaktayd\u0131 art\u0131k. \u201cA\u015fkta ihanetin\u201d, \u201cdostlukta vefas\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u201d, \u201cili\u015fkilerde yapmac\u0131k nezaketin ve riyak\u00e2rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u201d, \u201c\u00fcslupta gereksiz s\u00fcslerin\u201d, \u201cideallerden kopu\u015flar\u0131n\u201d diline kar\u015f\u0131 Almanca, ger\u00e7e\u011fin dile getirili\u015finin, d\u00fcr\u00fcstl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn, erdemin ve yal\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n diliydi.<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z edebiyat\u0131n\u0131n ve sanat\u0131n\u0131n olumlu oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcyorsa bunu s\u00f6ylemek, Frans\u0131zca biliniyorsa Frans\u0131zca konu\u015fmak, hatta bildi\u011fini saklamay\u0131p g\u00f6stermek, bunlar art\u0131k ay\u0131plan\u0131yor ve tepki g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Almanlarla ayn\u0131 k\u00f6kenden gelmelerine kar\u015f\u0131n Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n kendilerinden ba\u015fka ve farkl\u0131 olduklar\u0131n\u0131, hatta b\u00fct\u00fcn Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n \u201cba\u015fka bir \u0131rka\u201d mensup olduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyenlere bile rastlanabiliyordu. Bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fczl\u00fckte, Bernal\u2019e g\u00f6re, Almancan\u0131n, \u201ct\u0131pk\u0131 Fransa\u2019n\u0131n ilk y\u00f6neticileri taraf\u0131ndan konu\u015fulan Germen Frank dili gibi\u201d ortadan kalkabilece\u011finin kayg\u0131s\u0131 da bulunmaktayd\u0131.[64]<\/a><\/p>\n

Alman h\u00fcmanizm ak\u0131m\u0131 edebiyatta Latinceye a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k vermi\u015f oldu\u011fundan zaten \u00e7oktan beri lanetlenmi\u015f ve etkisizle\u015ftirilmi\u015fti. Almancay\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karmak u\u011fruna Latinceye uzak durmak nas\u0131l h\u00fcmanizmaya kar\u015f\u0131 olman\u0131n gerek\u00e7esine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015fse, Frans\u0131zcaya kar\u015f\u0131 olmak da Fransa\u2019dan geldi\u011fi varsay\u0131lan b\u00fct\u00fcn ak\u0131m ve etkileri (h\u00fcmanizm, ayd\u0131nlanma, nat\u00fcralizm vb.) be\u011fenmemenin, bunlara kar\u015f\u0131 olman\u0131n nedeni oluyordu.<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019n\u0131n \u201cdevrim\u201di ve devrimcili\u011fi o kadar \u201columsuz\u201ddu ki, bir Frans\u0131z\u0131n devrimden s\u00f6z etmesi lanetlenmesine yetip de art\u0131yordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Lamartine, \u201cFransa ya devrimcidir ya da hi\u00e7bir \u015feydir. 1789 Devrimi onun siyasal dinidir\u201d dedi\u011fi i\u00e7in Almanlara g\u00f6re k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131yd\u0131. Frans\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, Frans\u0131z dilini, devrimi olumlayan Frans\u0131zlar, zaten Alman d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131yd\u0131!<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019n\u0131n yerini ba\u015fkalar\u0131 al\u0131yor<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c1780\u2019lerde Hollanda, 1810 ve 1820\u2019lerde \u0130talya, 1830\u2019larda Polonya, ard\u0131ndan da \u0130svi\u00e7re; t\u00fcm bu modeller Alman ruhuna esin verebiliyorlard\u0131.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

H. James[65]<\/a><\/p>\n

Napoleon\u2019un Almanya\u2019n\u0131n lehine olmakla birlikte Almanlar taraf\u0131ndan istenmeyen ve direnilen m\u00fcdahaleleri, \u201cNapoleon d\u00f6nemi\u201d bittikten sonra tersine d\u00f6nd\u00fc ama o g\u00fcne kadarki uygulamalar\u0131n yaln\u0131zca biri \u201cAlman birli\u011fi\u201d savunucular\u0131n\u0131n hep i\u015fine yarayacakt\u0131: Almanya\u2019n\u0131n yeni d\u00fczenleni\u015fi.<\/p>\n

Kutsal Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun yerine Deutscher Bund (\u201cAlman Konfederasyonu\u201d) kurulmu\u015ftu. Bu, asl\u0131nda bir federal devlet (Bundesstaat) de\u011fildi, devletler federasyonuydu (Staatenbund<\/em>). Bu olu\u015fumun i\u00e7inde, Hannover prensli\u011finin h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 olmas\u0131 hasebiyle \u0130ngiliz Kral\u0131 III. George da bulunuyordu. Bu sayede s\u00f6z hakk\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f olan \u0130ngiltere durumdan yararland\u0131, hem soylular aras\u0131nda, hem de kamuoyunda itibar\u0131n\u0131 art\u0131rd\u0131. 1837 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar devam eden bu durum, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n da katk\u0131s\u0131yla \u0130ngiltere\u2019nin Almanya\u2019da yerini sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131na hizmet edecekti.<\/p>\n

Prusya Kral\u0131 I. Wilhelm\u2019in veliaht o\u011flu III. Friedrich, \u0130ngiliz Krali\u00e7esi Victoria\u2019n\u0131n k\u0131z\u0131 Victoria\u2019yla evlendirilmi\u015fti (1858). Nedeni bu evlilik de\u011fildi mutlaka, ama kral \u0130ngilizciydi. \u00c7ok k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrmesine ra\u011fmen (99 g\u00fcn) Almanya\u2019ya, sonralar\u0131 Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 bir koz haline gelecek olan \u0130ngilizcili\u011fi a\u015f\u0131layabilmi\u015f, hatta yerle\u015ftirebilmi\u015fti. \u0130ngilizci kral Friedrich\u2019in o\u011flu Kaiser II. Wilhelm, \u201c\u0130ngiliz soylu\u201d olmas\u0131ndan gurur duyacak, imparatorun asl\u0131nda Alman de\u011fil, \u0130ngiliz oldu\u011fu bile s\u00f6ylenecekti.[66]<\/a><\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019y\u0131 hedef alan bunca d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k, Frans\u0131zc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n yerine konan \u0130ngilizcilikle dengeleniyordu.<\/p>\n

Siyasette \u0130ngiliz parlamenter sisteminin ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc savunulmaya ba\u015fland\u0131. \u0130ngiliz denetim mekanizmas\u0131 ve \u0130ngilizlerin \u201ckarizmatik liderlik\u201d olgusu hayranl\u0131k uyand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131yd\u0131 ve Weber\u2019e g\u00f6re Almanya da \u00f6yle olmal\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Frans\u0131z Devriminin \u2018kutsal\u2019 Marianne\u2019\u0131, Fransa\u2019da \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn simgesiydi, ama Almanlar i\u00e7in bir fahi\u015feydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Tarih\u00e7iler, \u0130ngiliz demokrasi tarihinin dikkate de\u011fer oldu\u011funu \u201cfark ettiler\u201d. Treitschke, \u201c\u0130ngiliz anayasas\u0131 direnilemez ve ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lamaz bir cazibe merkezidir\u201d diyordu.[67]<\/a> \u0130ngiliz tarihi herkeste hayranl\u0131k uyand\u0131r\u0131yordu. Sanat\u00e7\u0131lar \u0130ngiliz gelenek\u00e7ili\u011fini takdir ediyorlard\u0131 ve onun etkisine girdiler.<\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda \u0130ngilizcili\u011fe Amerikanc\u0131l\u0131k eklendi. Amerika harika bir modeldi. Amerikan Devrimi zaten Almanya\u2019da hayranl\u0131k uyand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. O dereceye geldi ki Amerikanc\u0131l\u0131k, \u201cAlmanya ve Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n kurtar\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 Amerika olacakt\u0131r\u201d deniyordu. Bir hukuk\u00e7u Johann Christian Schwohl, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck ve refah\u0131n oradan gelece\u011fini ilan etti.[68]<\/a> Oradaki ekonomik geli\u015fmenin sars\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve inan\u0131lmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortadayd\u0131. \u00dcstelik Amerika, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n olaca\u011f\u0131 gibi federal bir devletti.[69]<\/a><\/p>\n

Arkadan gelen Almanya takip\u00e7i ve taklit\u00e7i olmak zorunda kald\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan ba\u015fka \u00fclkeleri y\u00fcceltme yolunda a\u00e7\u0131k ve sakl\u0131 olarak hep ilerlendi. Kimisi modelden s\u00f6z ederek yabanc\u0131 \u00fclke taraftarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 gizliyordu. Yabanc\u0131 olan her \u015feyde bir hikmet ke\u015ffediliyordu. \u0130ngiliz, Frans\u0131z, Amerikan, \u0130talyan, Hollanda ve \u0130sve\u00e7, modellerde de\u011fi\u015fik bak\u0131mlardan, farkl\u0131 gerek\u00e7elerle ve de\u011fi\u015fik d\u00f6nemlerde ge\u00e7erli oldu. Bu y\u00fczden \u00f6zg\u00fcven yok olmad\u0131 ama bir yandan gurur zedeleniyordu.<\/p>\n

Irk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u201c\u00fcstyap\u0131s\u0131\u201d, \u201culusalc\u0131l\u0131k\u201d ve zorunluluk olarak sava\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cDuyard\u0131m, o\u011flum,
\ns\u00f6z etti\u011fini senin,
\n<\/em>\u00fcst\u00fcn bir \u0131rktan.
\n<\/em>Nas\u0131l varacakt\u0131m fark\u0131na, nerden bilecektim, nerden,
\n<\/em>cellad\u0131ym\u0131\u015fs\u0131n me\u011fer sen kendinin.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

B. Brecht[70]<\/a><\/p>\n

Bedene ve erkeklik g\u00fcc\u00fcne tap\u0131nmay\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karan anlay\u0131\u015flar, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011frulanmas\u0131na ve desteklenmesine yarad\u0131. \u0130deolojik e\u011fitim fiziksel e\u011fitimle tamamlan\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Reformcu e\u011fitimcilerin ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekti\u011fi \u201cG\u00f6\u00e7men Ku\u015flar\u201d gen\u00e7lik hareketi, geli\u015fmelere \u00e7ocuksu yollarla direnme stratejisiyle, kentle\u015fme ve sanayile\u015fmeye kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor, gen\u00e7li\u011fi yeti\u015fkinlerin otoritesinden ve \u201cokul\u201dun etkisinden kurtarmay\u0131 ama\u00e7l\u0131yor, do\u011faya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fe uygun aray\u0131\u015flara giriyor (da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerde \u00e7\u0131plak ayakla y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015fler gibi) ve b\u00f6ylece k\u00f6t\u00fc d\u00fcnyadan ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00f6neriyordu. Elbette varl\u0131k g\u00f6steremeyecek, sonras\u0131 olamayacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Varl\u0131k g\u00f6sterenler ise, 1890\u2019da kurulan \u201cAlldeutsche Verband\u201d gibi \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerini ve yay\u0131lma niyetlerini a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a sergileyenlerdi. \u201cAlman tekellerinin ve Junkerlerinin en gerici ve en sald\u0131rgan \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fc\u201d olan bu \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fcn, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6revden ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u0131l kurulmas\u0131 rastlant\u0131 olamazd\u0131 (ya da anlaml\u0131 bir rastlant\u0131yd\u0131).[71]<\/a> Bu anlay\u0131\u015ftaki benzer dernekler, ki say\u0131lar\u0131 hi\u00e7 de az de\u011fildi, ve madencilik firmalar\u0131yla sanayi tr\u00f6stleri taraf\u0131ndan finanse edilen \u00e7ok say\u0131daki bunlara benzer ba\u015fka dernek, Rusya\u2019da, Anadolu\u2019da, Orta Do\u011fu\u2019da koloniler kurulmas\u0131n\u0131, Alman topluluklar\u0131n\u0131n oralarda iskan edilmelerini talep ediyor, Pancermenizmi savunuyordu. Dikkati gerektiren nokta, \u201cAlman Irk\u0131 Birli\u011fi\u201d gibi \u00f6rg\u00fctlerin, kitlesel olduklar\u0131 kadar, se\u00e7kinler taraf\u0131ndan da desteklenmesiydi. Bu d\u00fczeysiz \u00f6rg\u00fctlere bilimciler, hukuk\u00e7ular, askerler ve sanayiciler kitle halinde ve militan anlay\u0131\u015flarla kat\u0131l\u0131yorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

D\u00f6neme, Cermen k\u00f6kenli olmayan toplumlar\u0131n (Polonya ve Bohemya\u2019daki halklar\u0131n) \u00f6z\u00fcmsenmesi [asimilasyonu] e\u015flik ediyordu. Uygulaman\u0131n ad\u0131 resmen \u201cCermenle\u015ftirme\u201d idi.<\/p>\n

Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n par\u00e7alanmas\u0131n\u0131 ama\u00e7layan \u201cmilletler\u201de kar\u015f\u0131 \u201cAvusturya Pancermenleri\u201d, \u00f6ylesine sald\u0131rgan bir tutum i\u00e7indeydi ki, \u201cAlmanya\u2019daki Alldeutsche Verband bile s\u0131k s\u0131k bu Avusturyal\u0131 karde\u015f hareketin \u2018abart\u0131lar\u0131ndan\u2019 yak\u0131n\u0131\u201dyordu.[72]<\/a><\/p>\n

1890 y\u0131l\u0131nda yap\u0131lan ve \u0130ngiltere\u2019ye verilen \u00f6d\u00fcnleri ifade eden anla\u015fma gibi, Almanya i\u00e7in olumsuz olan gerilemeler, Pancermen ittifak\u0131n d\u0131\u015f politikadan beslenme kanallar\u0131 ve bahaneleriydi.<\/p>\n

Ulusal ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k ve ulusal \u00e7\u0131karlar i\u00e7in savunulan her hakl\u0131 \u015fey, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 teoriler ve e\u011filimler kalabal\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, uluslararas\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131klar batakl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, sald\u0131rganl\u0131k ve ilhak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k s\u00f6ylemlerinin g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcleri aras\u0131nda kayboldu. 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda Alman ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcne \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k karabasan\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6km\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Birbirine kar\u015f\u0131t<\/strong> bu iki ak\u0131m \u00fcstelik art\u0131k i\u00e7 i\u00e7e g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u2018Drang nach Osten\u2019, yeni palazlanan Alman emperyalizminin en temel slogan\u0131 olmu\u015ftu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1891 y\u0131l\u0131nda Engels, b\u00fcy\u00fck devletler taraf\u0131ndan sonucu hen\u00fcz kestirilemedi\u011fi i\u00e7in \u00e7\u0131kmayan \u201c\u0131rklar sava\u015f\u0131\u201dn\u0131n, Almanya taraf\u0131ndan kesin olarak \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yaz\u0131yordu.[73]<\/a><\/p>\n

Almanya ulusla\u015f\u0131rken, ulusall\u0131k Almanla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sonunda Almanlar bir ulus oldular, ama ulusalc\u0131l\u0131k, Almanya versiyonu ve Almanya tarz\u0131 olarak ba\u015fka bir \u015fekle b\u00fcr\u00fcnd\u00fc. \u201cEvrensel bir ulusu\u201d temsil etme iddias\u0131ndaki Alman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler ve politikac\u0131lar, d\u00fcnyaya, Alman halk\u0131 ile kurtulu\u015f vaat eden ba\u015fka t\u00fcrl\u00fc ve mucizevi bir ulusalc\u0131l\u0131k getirmi\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n

Bu \u201culusalc\u0131l\u0131k\u201d, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda d\u00fcnyan\u0131n g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc en b\u00fcy\u00fck, en geni\u015f, en ac\u0131l\u0131 sava\u015flar yan\u0131nda, bir \u0131rka, etnik \u00f6zellikli bir topluma y\u00f6nelen d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k ve \u015fiddetin en y\u00fcksek ve \u201cen ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131\u201d uygulamas\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karacakt\u0131.[74]<\/a><\/p>\n

Yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131kla sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yeniden ke\u015ffi<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cKelimeler her zaman yaratt\u0131klar\u0131 eylemlerin ya da fedakarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n rengini al\u0131rlar. \u00d6rne\u011fin, vatan s\u00f6z\u00fc sizde, benim her zaman yad\u0131rgayacak oldu\u011fum kanl\u0131 ve karanl\u0131k yarg\u0131larla y\u00fckl\u00fcd\u00fcr. Oysa biz, ayn\u0131 kelimeye akl\u0131n alevini koyduk.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em>Albert Camus, \u201c\u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc Mektup\u201d, 1944[75]<\/a><\/p>\n

1879\u2019da koruyucu g\u00fcmr\u00fck tedbirleriyle serbest ticaret rejimine tam olarak son verildi. Sanayinin ihtiyac\u0131 olan hammaddenin d\u0131\u015far\u0131dan al\u0131nmas\u0131, mamul mallar\u0131n da d\u0131\u015far\u0131da sat\u0131lmas\u0131 sa\u011flanmal\u0131yd\u0131. Bunun gere\u011fi olarak Alman yat\u0131r\u0131mlar\u0131 \u00f6ncelikle Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusuna y\u00f6nelmeliydi. Oysa Almanya\u2019n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck m\u00fc\u015fterisi Rusya da, -ayn\u0131 Almanya\u2019n\u0131n yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi- kendi sanayisini korumak amac\u0131yla 1875\u2019te g\u00fcmr\u00fck duvarlar\u0131 \u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f, Almanya ile on y\u0131l \u00f6nce yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 serbest ticaret anla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 iptal etmi\u015fti. Ayn\u0131 zamanda ba\u015fka Do\u011fu Avrupa \u00fclkelerine Almanya\u2019n\u0131n mal d\u0131\u015fsat\u0131m\u0131 da -ba\u015fka rakipler devreye girdi\u011fi ve onlar da kendi ticaretlerini art\u0131rd\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in- azalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ticari yay\u0131lma Almanya i\u00e7in zorluklarla doluydu. Ve ticari yay\u0131lma, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n hedefleri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan da yetersizdi. Ticaretini art\u0131rabilse bile, bu, hayallerin ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan yeterli olmayacak, Almanya\u2019y\u0131 kesemeyecekti. Kald\u0131 ki art\u0131rabildi\u011fi de s\u00f6ylenemezdi. Bu y\u00fczden 1890\u2019lar, Pancermenizmin ve s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik ihtiraslar\u0131n\u0131n patlama y\u0131llar\u0131 oldu. Portekiz ve Bel\u00e7ika gibi k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci \u00fclkelerin s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerinden i\u015fe ba\u015flamak \u00f6neriliyor, ancak bunlarla yetinilmeyerek b\u00fct\u00fcn s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilerin s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerini ele ge\u00e7irmenin gerekti\u011fi ileri s\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

Yak\u0131n alanlar olarak da kom\u015fular de\u011ferlendiriliyordu. Rusya par\u00e7alanmal\u0131, Kafkaslar dahil en do\u011fuda olmayan Avrupa\u2019ya yak\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn Rusya topraklar\u0131, Balt\u0131k \u00fclkeleri, Balkanlar, Ukrayna vb. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n olmal\u0131, Slavlar, do\u011fu ve g\u00fcneydo\u011fu Avrupal\u0131lar Almanlar\u0131n k\u00f6lesi haline gelmeliydi. E\u011filimler, Avrupa i\u00e7inde bir \u201cAlman Birli\u011fi\u201d konusu olmaktan \u00e7oktan \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, \u201cb\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa\u2019ya hakim bir Almanya\u201d d\u00fc\u015flerine varm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130\u015fgal edilmesi uygun g\u00f6r\u00fclen \u00fclkeler a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a yaz\u0131l\u0131yor, i\u015fgal ve ilhaklar\u0131n planlar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klan\u0131yor, hatta haritalar\u0131 bile \u00e7iziliyordu.<\/p>\n

\u201cPancermen Birli\u011fi\u201d adl\u0131 \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fcn 1896\u2019da M\u00fcnih\u2019te yay\u0131nlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir bro\u015f\u00fcrde \u201c\u2026 Alman \u00e7al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve Alman bilimi, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir Alman y\u00f6netimi alt\u0131nda, bir zamanlar eski d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en bay\u0131nd\u0131r \u00fclkesi say\u0131lan bu topraklar\u0131 [Osmanl\u0131 topraklar\u0131, Orta Do\u011fu kastediliyor] Reich\u2019\u0131n m\u00fclk\u00fc haline getirecektir; t\u0131pk\u0131 B\u00fcy\u00fck Britanya\u2019n\u0131n Hindistan\u2019da yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi\u201d c\u00fcmlelerinin yer almas\u0131, yaln\u0131z \u0130ngiltere, Rusya ve Osmanl\u0131 gibi devletlerin tepkisini \u00e7ekmekle kalmad\u0131, Almanya\u2019da da bir kayg\u0131 yaratt\u0131. Alman ama\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n b\u00f6yle a\u00e7\u0131k bi\u00e7imlerde ortaya konmas\u0131 \u201csak\u0131ncal\u0131\u201d ve \u201ctehlike\u201dliydi, dikkat etmek gerekiyordu ve bu y\u00fczden h\u00fck\u00fcmet Pancermen \u00f6rg\u00fctleri denetim almak zorunda kald\u0131.[76]<\/a><\/p>\n

Y\u0131llar \u00f6nce List\u2019in s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerin \u00f6nemi \u00fcst\u00fcnde durmas\u0131, sonra Roscher\u2019in[77]<\/a> bunu s\u0131kl\u0131kla tekrarlamas\u0131, uzak da olsa her yerde Alman kolonileri kurulmas\u0131n\u0131, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerin Alman \u00fcretimine pazar olarak a\u00e7\u0131lmak yan\u0131nda hammadde kayna\u011f\u0131 da olduklar\u0131n\u0131 yazmas\u0131, yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131k ve ilhak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k taraftarlar\u0131n\u0131 yeterince cesaretlendirmi\u015fti. Do\u011fu dilleri profes\u00f6r\u00fc oryantalist Paul Lagarde[78]<\/a> gibi akademisyenlerin de yay\u0131lmac\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri benimsemesi geni\u015f ayd\u0131n kesimlerinin koroya kat\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Sald\u0131rganl\u0131k ve yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131k, kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131lamamas\u0131 bir yana, tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lamayan ve \u00fczerinde konu\u015fulamayan bir \u201culusal strateji\u201dye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. \u201cKar\u015f\u0131t g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler\u201d, yaln\u0131zca, ya emperyalist politikalar\u0131n ne tip iktidarlarca y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmesi gerekti\u011fi (\u00f6rne\u011fin, Weber, \u00e7a\u011fd\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc Junker iktidar ve anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n, liberal burjuvazi iktidar ve anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla de\u011fi\u015ftirilmesi gerekti\u011fini savunuyordu[79]<\/a>), ya da nas\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmesinin daha yararl\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131 (propaganda gizlili\u011fi, s\u00f6ylem tarz\u0131, \u00f6nceliklerin a\u00e7\u0131klanmamas\u0131, diplomatik bi\u00e7em vb.) ile s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

1880\u2019li y\u0131llar boyunca \u00e7elik \u00fcretimi ikiye katlan\u0131rken bu arada bir u\u00e7urum b\u00fcy\u00fcyordu; 1879\u2019da vergi m\u00fckelleflerinin binde be\u015fi ulusal servetin yedide birini elinde bulundururken, 1894\u2019te bu be\u015fte birine yakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 (1899\u2019da ise be\u015fte birini ge\u00e7ecekti). U\u00e7urumun b\u00fcy\u00fcmesinin anlam\u0131, servetin yo\u011funla\u015fmas\u0131 ve bu yo\u011funla\u015fman\u0131n ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak siyasete yans\u0131yaca\u011f\u0131yd\u0131. Yani Almanya \u201cd\u0131\u015fa a\u00e7\u0131lacak\u201dt\u0131, emperyalistle\u015fecekti.<\/p>\n

Bu d\u00f6nem, \u201cAvrupa\u2019ya d\u00f6n\u00fck\u201d politikadan \u201cd\u00fcnya politikas\u0131\u201dna (Weltpolitik) ge\u00e7ildi\u011fi, Alman ordusunun Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck ve en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ordusu yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131[80]<\/a>, Alman donanmas\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc donanmas\u0131 haline getirilmek istendi\u011fi[81]<\/a>, \u0130ngiltere\u2019yi denizlerden s\u00fcrmenin planland\u0131\u011f\u0131[82]<\/a>, \u2018Drang nach Osten\u2019\u0131n[83]<\/a> hayata ge\u00e7irildi\u011fi, Berlin-Ba\u011fdat demiryolu projesinin ele al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve uygulanmaya ba\u015fland\u0131\u011f\u0131, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fin \u015fart oldu\u011funun a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a s\u00f6ylendi\u011fi bir d\u00f6nemdir.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Almanya\u2019n\u0131n emperyalistle\u015fme s\u00fcrecinin simgelerinden biri Berlin-Ba\u011fdat demiryolu projesiydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Deutsche Bank, Dresdner Bank, Darmst\u00e4dter Bank ve Deutsche Bahn\u2019\u0131n (Alman Devlet Demiryollar\u0131) olu\u015fturdu\u011fu \u201cD\u00f6rt D\u201d, Alman yay\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n ve n\u00fcfuzunun simgesi oluyordu.<\/p>\n

S\u00f6m\u00fcrge edinme h\u0131rs\u0131 \u00e7ok fazla olmasa bile yay\u0131lmada fazla zorlanma olmayacakt\u0131. Alman s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fi gitti\u011fi yerlerde \u00f6nemli bir g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmad\u0131. Ele ge\u00e7irilen yerler \u00e7o\u011funlukla bakir alanlar, buralardaki toplumlar da son derece geri toplumlard\u0131. Kuzey Afrika ve \u00c7in gibi uygar b\u00f6lgelerde kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lan yerel direni\u015fler ise kolayca bast\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu. \u0130spanya ve Portekiz gibi s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerine sahip \u00e7\u0131kma g\u00fcc\u00fc kalmam\u0131\u015f \u201crakipler\u201din zaten g\u0131k\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

\u201cAlmanya 1878\u2019de \u00f6zel te\u015febb\u00fcs\u00fcn denizlerdeki izlerinden gidip Marshall Adalar\u0131\u2019nda kendine bir k\u00f6m\u00fcr liman\u0131 kurma cesaretini g\u00f6sterdi. 1884\u2019te Berlin kuzeydo\u011fu Yeni Gine\u2019yi ilhak etti… Ertesi y\u0131l i\u015fi, emperyal sanca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Yap Adas\u0131\u2019nda dalgaland\u0131r\u0131p Karolin Adalar\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcnde hak iddia etmeye kadar vard\u0131rd\u0131.\u201d[84]<\/a> \u0130spanya biraz tela\u015flan\u0131p papaya ba\u015fvurduysa da, Almanya b\u00fct\u00fcn bu b\u00f6lgelerde adalar\u0131 \u0130ngiltere ile payla\u015fma \u015feklinde anla\u015fm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in papan\u0131n yapabilece\u011fi hi\u00e7bir \u015fey yoktu! (Papal\u0131k zaten \u00e7oktand\u0131r kudretini ve etkisini kaybetmi\u015fti, bu y\u00fczy\u0131lda da en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc olan devletlerin hizmetindeydi.)<\/p>\n

Ama Almanya\u2019n\u0131n elde etti\u011fi s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeler verimsiz olmalar\u0131 bir yana, \u0130ngiltere ve Fransa\u2019n\u0131nkilerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00e7ok azd\u0131; \u201ciki b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u201d yaln\u0131z Afrika\u2019daki alanlar\u0131 d\u00f6rder milyon milkare iken, Almanya\u2019n\u0131nki ancak 900 bin milkare kadard\u0131.<\/p>\n

BISMARC\u2019IN D\u00dc\u015e\u00dc\u015e\u00dc<\/strong><\/h4>\n

Yay\u0131lma ve sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n takozu: ihtiyatl\u0131 Bismarck<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cEtkili bireyler, ak\u0131l ve yeteneklerinin \u00f6zg\u00fcn nitelikleri sayesinde, <\/em>olaylar\u0131n tikel \u00f6zelliklerini ve belirli k\u0131smi sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirebilirler ama ba\u015fka kuvvetler taraf\u0131ndan belirlenen genel <\/em>y\u00f6nelimini de\u011fi\u015ftiremezler.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

Plehanov[85]<\/a><\/p>\n

\u00d6nceki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde s\u00fcre\u00e7 \u00f6zetlendi, Almanya emperyalist olmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu, oluyordu, olacakt\u0131 ama i\u00e7te<\/strong> \u201czorluklar\u201d vard\u0131. Yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n mekanizmalar\u0131 Bismarck d\u00f6neminde ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor, yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131k daha o zamandan y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011fe konuyordu, ama Bismarck, emperyalist yay\u0131lma politikalar\u0131n\u0131 macerac\u0131 olmayan \u201cger\u00e7ek\u00e7i\u201d bir temelde y\u00fcr\u00fctmeyi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyor, \u201cd\u0131\u015fa a\u00e7\u0131lma\u201dy\u0131 o d\u00f6nemde Slav topraklar\u0131yla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131yor, yaln\u0131zca ve \u00f6zellikle Slav halklar\u0131n\u0131 boyunduru\u011funa alm\u0131\u015f bir Almanya tasarl\u0131yordu. Bismarck, par\u00e7alanma ve da\u011f\u0131lma e\u015fi\u011finde olan imparatorluklardan yaln\u0131zca Avusturya-Macaristan \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun hakimiyet alanlar\u0131na y\u00f6nelik politikay\u0131 do\u011fru g\u00f6rd\u00fc. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc sanayisi geli\u015fmi\u015f Almanya\u2019n\u0131n \u00fcretimini, hakimiyet alanlar\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131na sahip olmadan da ihra\u00e7 edebilece\u011fi gibi bir yan\u0131lg\u0131 i\u00e7indeydi. Ticaret \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n i\u015fleyi\u015fine tak\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Madem geli\u015fmi\u015f bir end\u00fcstri vard\u0131, ticaret de buna ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak geli\u015fecek, \u00fcretim varsa ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz bir \u015fekilde d\u0131\u015fsat\u0131m da olacakt\u0131. O kadar tutucuydu ki, kesin ve sonu\u00e7 al\u0131c\u0131 \u201cyeni\u201d y\u00f6ntemlerin gereklili\u011fini, onlar\u0131n olmazsa olmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kabul edemiyordu. Y\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131, g\u00f6z\u00fc kara ve amans\u0131z Bismarck devlet-ulusun misyoneri<\/strong> olarak \u201cyeni d\u00f6nemin\u201d ve emperyalist a\u015famadaki \u00f6zelliklerin mant\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kavrayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in devlet-ulus format\u0131n\u0131n yetmezli\u011fini g\u00f6remedi, bunun emperyalist olmak i\u00e7in yetersizli\u011fini anlayamad\u0131. Emperyalist olman\u0131n \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc anlayamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ona g\u00f6re \u201cimparatorluk\u201d, \u201c\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fc ve sa\u011flam\u201d olmal\u0131yd\u0131. \u0130lhak\u00e7\u0131yd\u0131 ama bunun bir s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 vard\u0131. Ortaya ekonomik sorunlar \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bunlar da tasarrufla a\u015f\u0131labilirdi. Oysa \u201cemperyalizmin\u201d, co\u011frafi s\u0131n\u0131rlarla, haritalardaki b\u00f6lgeler ve k\u0131talarla bir ilgisi yoktu. S\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z bir yay\u0131lmaya y\u00f6nelme, s\u0131n\u0131rlanmayacak bir ilhak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k, emperyalizmin esas karakteriydi. Bu bak\u0131mdan Bismarck tam<\/strong> bir emperyalist de\u011fildi, o kafayla da olamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Osmanl\u0131 devletiyle kurulan ili\u015fkiler konusunda da \u00f6nleyici<\/strong> bir rol \u00fcstlenmi\u015fti. Almanya Trakya\u2019ya bile girmemeliydi. T\u00fcrklere zaten g\u00fcvenilemezdi. Balkanlar ve Anadolu\u2019da demiryolu yap\u0131m\u0131na soyunan Almanya\u2019y\u0131 frenlemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor, Deutsche Bank\u2019\u0131n o d\u00f6nemdeki genel m\u00fcd\u00fcr\u00fc von Siemens\u2019e, demiryolu yap\u0131m\u0131 i\u015finin sonunun k\u00f6t\u00fc olaca\u011f\u0131 yolundaki k\u00f6t\u00fcmser yorumlar\u0131n\u0131 aktararak kayg\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 dile getiriyor, b\u00f6yle \u201cyanl\u0131\u015f\u201d projelerden vazge\u00e7ilmesini istiyordu. Osmanl\u0131 yak\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 hararetle savunanlara ve Orta Do\u011fu\u2019ya yat\u0131r\u0131m yapma isteklilerine sorumluluklar\u0131n\u0131 hat\u0131rlatarak onlar\u0131 ayn\u0131 zamanda tehdit ediyordu. \u201cGiri\u015fimciler, riskli, yanl\u0131\u015f ve tehlikeli yat\u0131r\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n olumsuz sonu\u00e7lar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun kendilerini korumas\u0131n\u0131 beklememeli\u201dydiler!<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, Osmanl\u0131 devleti \u201cdost ve m\u00fcttefik olmaya de\u011fer bir varl\u0131k\u201d de\u011fildi, anla\u015fmalar sistemi<\/strong>ne dahil edilemezdi.[86]<\/a><\/p>\n

D\u0131\u015f sorunlar\u0131 \u00f6nemsemek, b\u00fcy\u00fctmek, hatta yoksa yaratmak, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birli\u011fini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, kas\u0131tl\u0131 ve ama\u00e7l\u0131 sald\u0131rganl\u0131k, bir d\u00f6nemin gereklili\u011fiydi, realpolitik<\/strong>ti, yerindeydi, yararl\u0131yd\u0131, yararl\u0131 olmu\u015ftu ama o d\u00f6neme \u00f6zg\u00fcyd\u00fc, hep s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclemezdi. D\u0131\u015f sorunlar bitmeli, i\u00e7 durum m\u00fckemmel hale getirilmeliydi. Alman Birli\u011fi sa\u011fland\u0131ktan sonra \u201cbar\u0131\u015f zaman\u0131\u201d ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, art\u0131k sava\u015ftan ka\u00e7\u0131nmak gerekiyordu. Asl\u0131nda Bismarck esas olarak sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 da de\u011fildi, 1849\u2019dan ba\u015flayarak onunla simgele\u015fen \u201cdemir ve kan\u201d ya da \u201ckan ve demir\u201d kelimeleri ile olan \u00fcnl\u00fc s\u00f6zleri, \u201csava\u015f hakk\u0131nda de\u011fil, b\u00fct\u00e7e ve toplumsal olaylar hakk\u0131nda s\u00f6ylenmi\u015fti\u201d.[87]<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"
Bismarck ile Katolik Kilisesi aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7eki\u015fmeyi konu alan bir karikat\u00fcr (1875).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n, \u201cDo\u011fuya a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131m\u201d politikalar\u0131n\u0131 dizginlemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 projelerin istenildi\u011fi gibi y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclememesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131.[88]<\/a><\/p>\n

\u201cZor\u201du \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karan, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 her \u015feyi orduya dayanarak y\u00fcr\u00fctmeyi do\u011fru g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f pervas\u0131z Bismarck, fazla temkinli ve korkak denecek derecede ihtiyatl\u0131 olmu\u015ftu, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ku\u015fat\u0131lmas\u0131 tehdidine de askeri de\u011fil, diplomatik yollarla \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm ar\u0131yordu. Askerlerin \u00fcst d\u00fczeyi, ordunun i\u015flevsizle\u015fti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesiyle memnuniyetsizdi.<\/p>\n

G\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc iktisadi bask\u0131 gruplar\u0131, hammaddelerin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 ve \u00fcretilen mallar\u0131n pazarlanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in aktif bir k\u0131talararas\u0131 ve deniza\u015f\u0131r\u0131 siyaset \u00f6zlemindeydi.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201csistemi\u201d, Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir kesimi taraf\u0131ndan tarihi hatalar\u0131n toplam\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

1888 yaz\u0131nda babas\u0131n\u0131n yerine 29 ya\u015f\u0131ndaki ate\u015fli, h\u0131rsl\u0131, kompleksli ve hesaps\u0131z II. Wilhelm imparator oldu. \u0130mparator da Bismarck\u2019la anla\u015famad\u0131. Uyu\u015fmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 gizlemedi.<\/p>\n

\u0130ktidardan uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 1890 y\u0131l\u0131nda Bismarck kendi do\u011fru politikalar\u0131n\u0131n esas olarak ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini de savunuyordu. Ona g\u00f6re Almanya\u2019n\u0131n art\u0131k topra\u011fa ve sava\u015fa ihtiyac\u0131 yoktu. \u0130mparatorluk art\u0131k doygun bir g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fc. \u00d6nemli olan art\u0131k istikrard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca savunduklar\u0131n\u0131 tam olarak da ba\u015farm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Balkanlarda ve Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusunda lingua Franca<\/strong>, bir rakibin dili de\u011fil, Almancayd\u0131.[89]<\/a><\/p>\n

Zaten Bismarck\u2019\u0131n uluslararas\u0131 alandaki politikac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u201cAvrupa politikac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201dyd\u0131. Usta bir diplomat olarak Avrupa\u2019da uluslararas\u0131 siyasetin ana eksenini belirliyor, \u201chakem rol\u00fc\u201d oynuyor, merkez oluyordu. Ama her \u015feyden \u00f6nde gelen amac\u0131, Fransa\u2019y\u0131 k\u0131tada (Avrupa\u2019da) yaln\u0131zla\u015ft\u0131rmak ve zay\u0131flatmak, \u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n Avrupa\u2019daki hedefleri i\u00e7in\u201d onu etkisizle\u015ftirmekti. \u0130ttifaklar\u0131n\u0131 da buna g\u00f6re yap\u0131yordu. Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Rusya ile yak\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in hem Rusya ve hem de Avusturya-Macaristan ile \u00f6zel, gizli ve karma\u015f\u0131k ili\u015fkiler y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc, bu \u00fclkelerle etkili ittifak sistemleri kurdu. Hatta Fransa\u2019n\u0131n k\u0131ta sorunlar\u0131yla ilgilenmesini \u00f6nlemek niyetiyle (\u00f6rne\u011fin, -kendisi i\u00e7in en \u00f6nemli sorun olan, \u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n birinci ulusal sorunu\u201d olan- Alsace-Lorraine sorunu konusunda kendisiyle \u00e7eki\u015femesin diye), Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Avrupa d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda oyalanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamaya hizmet etmesi i\u00e7in Fransa\u2019n\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcrge siyasetlerini bile desteklemi\u015f, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Avrupa d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ve etkisinin artmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fc bir \u015fekilde onaylam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bunun en belirgin \u00f6rne\u011fi de, 1881\u2019de Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Tunus\u2019u da alarak Kuzey Afrika\u2019daki topraklar\u0131n\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fctmesini te\u015fvik etmesi, Frans\u0131z s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fine destek olmas\u0131<\/strong>yd\u0131. Kendisiyle s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in Rusya\u2019ya verdi\u011fi \u00f6nem, ona Bulgaristan \u00fczerindeki n\u00fcfuz ve himaye hakk\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131mas\u0131na kadar varm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. (Buna benzer politikalar elbette Bismarck\u2019a \u00f6zg\u00fc de\u011fildi, d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131n\u0131n hedeflerini \u201csavunman\u0131n\u201d, d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131na \u201carma\u011fanlar\u201d vermenin ba\u015fkalar\u0131nca yap\u0131lan ba\u015fka \u00f6rnekleri de vard\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u0130ngiltere, Rusya\u2019n\u0131n Hindistan\u2019daki \u0130ngiliz varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tehdit etmesini \u00f6nlemek ve Uzak Do\u011fu\u2019da, \u00c7in\u2019de Rusya\u2019yla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmamak i\u00e7in, kendisine zarar\u0131 dokunmas\u0131n diye 1892 y\u0131l\u0131 sonras\u0131nda \u00c7arl\u0131\u011fa Bo\u011fazlar\u0131 sunmaktan bile \u00e7ekinmemi\u015fti!)<\/p>\n

\u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcvenli\u011fini garanti almak i\u00e7in, Fransa, Avrupa diplomasisinin ana ak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda\u201d tutulmu\u015ftu.[90]<\/a> Almanya\u2019n\u0131n Avrupa\u2019daki hakimiyet alanlar\u0131 her \u015feyden \u00f6nemliydi ve bu alanlardaki hakimiyet Fransa\u2019y\u0131 k\u0131tadan uzakla\u015ft\u0131rmakla sa\u011flanabilirdi.<\/p>\n

Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funun Kuzey Afrika\u2019da elinde tutmakta zorland\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00f6lgeler, Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re Almanya i\u00e7in hi\u00e7 anlaml\u0131 de\u011fildi ve Fransa\u2019y\u0131 Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda tutman\u0131n arac\u0131 olarak de\u011ferlendirilmi\u015fti. Bu konudaki \u201cte\u015fvik\u201d, ayn\u0131 zamanda, Fransa ile \u0130ngiltere aras\u0131ndaki kap\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 k\u0131z\u0131\u015ft\u0131raca\u011f\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 da Almanya i\u00e7in yararl\u0131 olacak diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

Rakipler (Fransa ve Almanya), Avrupa i\u00e7inde \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmamal\u0131yd\u0131 ama Avrupa d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda birbirleriyle sava\u015fabilirlerdi. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n kom\u015fular\u0131 ise birbirleriyle hi\u00e7 sava\u015fmamal\u0131yd\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Almanya, s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 yak\u0131n\u0131ndaki her sava\u015f\u0131n i\u00e7ine \u00e7ekilirdi. Ayr\u0131ca kom\u015fular birbirleriyle \u00e7ok yak\u0131n da olmamal\u0131yd\u0131lar, bu sefer Almanya\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 ittifak yapabilirlerdi.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bismarck\u2019\u0131n kariyerinin son y\u0131llar\u0131nda yap\u0131lan bir portresi. (Franz von Lenbach)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funa kar\u015f\u0131 tedbirli ve kay\u0131ts\u0131z g\u00f6r\u00fcnmesine ra\u011fmen Bismarck, sultandan gelen yak\u0131nla\u015fma isteklerine, Londra, Paris ve St. Petersburg\u2019la ili\u015fkilerini zedelemeyecek \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ve o kadarla kalmak \u015fart\u0131yla kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k vermi\u015fti.[91]<\/a> \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Osmanl\u0131 topraklar\u0131nda g\u00f6z\u00fc yoktu ve bir iddias\u0131 oldu\u011fu yolunda izlenim uyand\u0131rmak da istemiyordu. \u201cOsmanl\u0131 [topraklar\u0131] tek bir Pomeranyal\u0131 askerimin bile kemiklerine de\u011fmez\u201d demesi bunu kan\u0131tl\u0131yordu.[92]<\/a> Buldu\u011fu yol, Osmanl\u0131ya devlet olarak de\u011fil, g\u00f6nderdi\u011fi ki\u015fileri sultan\u0131n hizmetine sokarak ona \u201cyard\u0131mc\u0131\u201d olmakt\u0131. B\u00f6ylece, kendince su\u00e7lanmay\u0131 \u00f6nlemi\u015f, gerekti\u011finde uzak durma konusunda bir ili\u015fkisi ve sorumlulu\u011fu olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 iddia edebilecek bir konum kazanm\u0131\u015f oluyordu. Berlin Konferans\u0131 d\u00f6neminde, askeri \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden b\u00fcy\u00fclenen acemi Sultan Hamid Almanya\u2019ya, Rusya\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 dengeyi sa\u011flayacak bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak bakmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cDan\u0131\u015fmanlar\u0131ndan Albay Dreysse, sultana Alman askeri misyonunu \u00f6nermi\u015f ve bu y\u00f6ndeki bir ba\u015fvuruyu da Bismarck ilk olarak kabul etmi\u015fti\u201d. 1880\u2019de yap\u0131lan anla\u015fma \u00fczerine iki y\u0131l sonra Osmanl\u0131 devletine ilk Alman askeri heyeti geldi. Ancak Bismarck bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, bir\u00e7ok alanda yap\u0131lacak anla\u015fmalar\u0131 engellemi\u015f, daha s\u0131k\u0131 ili\u015fkiler kurulmas\u0131na mani olmu\u015ftu.[93]<\/a> Ruslar\u0131 \u00fcrk\u00fctmemek gerekiyordu.<\/p>\n

Asl\u0131nda Bismarck taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6nlenen \u201cd\u00fcnyaya yay\u0131lma\u201d, zaten ge\u00e7 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. O y\u00fczden Bismarck kar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131 sab\u0131rs\u0131zd\u0131lar. Daha fazla vakit kaybedilmemesi gerekiyordu. \u201cTarihin co\u011frafi ekseni (1904) adl\u0131 \u00f6nc\u00fc yap\u0131t\u0131nda Oxford\u2019un ilk co\u011frafya profes\u00f6r\u00fc olan Hallford Mackinder (1861-1971), imparatorluklar\u0131n [daha da] yay\u0131labilmeleri i\u00e7in art\u0131k bakir toprak olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 i\u015faret ediyordu.\u201d[94]<\/a><\/p>\n

Art\u0131k herkes ayn\u0131 fikirde: \u201cBismarck\u2019la olmaz!\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cHer tarihi d\u00f6nemde, varolan ekonomik \u00fcretim ve de\u011fi\u015fim bi\u00e7imi ve bunun ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz sonucu olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan toplumsal \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme, o d\u00f6nemin siyasi ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel tarihinin \u00fczerinde y\u00fckseldi\u011fi temeli olu\u015fturur ve o d\u00f6nemin siyasi ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel tarihi ancak bu temele dayan\u0131larak a\u00e7\u0131klanabilir\u2026\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

F. Engels[95]<\/a><\/p>\n

P\u0131s\u0131r\u0131kl\u0131k olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen bu \u201c\u00e7ekingen\u201d politikalarla Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cAvrupal\u0131\u201d ve \u201cAvrupa\u2019yla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131\u201d Alman imparatorlu\u011fu, \u201colmas\u0131 gereken imparatorluk\u201d, \u201cger\u00e7ek bir imparatorluk\u201d, bir \u201cd\u00fcnya imparatorlu\u011fu\u201d de\u011fildi ve olamazd\u0131. Ama ger\u00e7ek imparatorlu\u011fun da zaman\u0131 \u00e7oktan gelmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n tutucu ve tutuk politikalar\u0131 Almanya\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015flerine ters d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, \u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131\u201dyla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmedi\u011fi, daha do\u011frusu Almanya\u2019ya k\u0131sa geldi\u011fi i\u00e7in, 28 y\u0131ll\u0131k iktidar d\u00f6neminden sonra Bismarck\u2019\u0131n siyasi hayat\u0131 sona erdi. 1890 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki ekonomik kriz bahane edilerek istifa ettirildi ve g\u00f6revden uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. O da \u015f\u00f6yle oldu: Daha \u00f6nce istifay\u0131 hep tehdit olarak kullanm\u0131\u015f Bismarck\u2019\u0131n (kendisine memnuniyetsizlik ima edildi\u011fi i\u00e7in verdi\u011fi) istifas\u0131 derhal<\/strong> kabul edildi (18 Mart). Bu i\u015fe Bismarck d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kimse \u015fa\u015fmad\u0131! Plan yoktu ama yararlanmazl\u0131k da edilmemi\u015fti. O g\u00fcne kadar hi\u00e7 oyuna getirilmemi\u015f, getirilememi\u015f Bismarck gafil avlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131!<\/p>\n

\u0130htiyac\u0131 ve gelece\u011fi kar\u015f\u0131lamaya y\u00f6nelik yeni politikalar\u0131n sahibi olmaya istekli kendine g\u00fcvenen Kayzerin \u201cdarbe\u201dsine Bismarck\u2019\u0131n tutunmak istedi\u011fi dal Reichstag\u2019\u0131n deste\u011fiydi. Ama o meclis, iktidara geldi\u011finden beri hep zay\u0131flatmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve \u00fcstelik yok sayd\u0131\u011f\u0131 kurumun ta kendisiydi. Parlamenterler i\u00e7in Bismarck\u2019\u0131n gitmesinde tela\u015flanacak ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc bir durum yoktu, o zaten zaman\u0131n\u0131 doldurmu\u015ftu, hem gitmesine de sevineceklerdi, meclis b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle havalara bakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
1888 yaz\u0131nda babas\u0131n\u0131n yerine 29 ya\u015f\u0131ndaki ate\u015fli, h\u0131rsl\u0131, kompleksli ve hesaps\u0131z II. Wilhelm imparator oldu. \u0130mparator da Bismarck\u2019la anla\u015famad\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Bu sefer Bismarck darbe tezgahlamaya kalkt\u0131. Bu son giri\u015fimi ve yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 entrikalar, daha da yaln\u0131zla\u015fmas\u0131ndan ba\u015fka bir sonu\u00e7 vermedi. Hatta bunlar, b\u00fct\u00fcn kaynaklar\u0131n \u00fczerinde anla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir berrakl\u0131kla, \u201cistifas\u0131\u201dna y\u00f6nelik onay\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesini sa\u011flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Friedrichsruh\u2019a \u00e7ekilip \u00fc\u00e7 ciltlik an\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131[96]<\/a> yazmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u00e7izgisiyle uyumlu olan b\u00fct\u00fcn kadrolar tasfiye edilecekti. \u0130mparator, yeni d\u00f6nemin emperyalist politikalar\u0131na hizmet edecek, edebilecek insanlar\u0131 bulmakta da hi\u00e7 zorluk \u00e7ekmedi. Zaten bu g\u00fcn\u00fc beklemekte<\/strong> olanlar \u2018g\u00f6reve haz\u0131r\u0131z\u2019 diyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ad\u0131 darbe olmamakla birlikte Almanya, emperyalist yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hayata ge\u00e7irebilmek i\u00e7in bir tezgah yapmak zorunda kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ama \u201cdarbe\u201d ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 oldu, sonu\u00e7 al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ve bu Bismarck i\u00e7in kabul edilemez, kald\u0131r\u0131lamaz ve katlan\u0131lamaz bir durumdu. \u00c7ekilmek zorunda kalm\u0131\u015f Bismarck\u2019\u0131n dengesi bozuldu, uyuyamaz oldu, \u201cbir\u00e7oklar\u0131na g\u00f6re cezas\u0131n\u0131 bulmu\u015ftu\u201d ama o \u201cdisiplin abidesi adam\u201d art\u0131k bir morfin ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131s\u0131yd\u0131.[97]<\/a> Freud\u2019un izleyicilerinden Harold D. Lasswelle\u2019e g\u00f6re, o zaten bir histeri hastas\u0131yd\u0131.[98]<\/a><\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6revde kalmamas\u0131n\u0131n, Almanlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funu g\u00f6revde kalmas\u0131ndan daha mutlu edece\u011fi (ve sonra da etti\u011fi) \u00e7ok a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. An\u0131s\u0131 \u00f6nemliydi ve \u00f6nemli kalacakt\u0131, ama savunduklar\u0131na Almanya\u2019da bir yer bulmak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildi art\u0131k. Bir \u201culusal kahraman\u201d olarak ad\u0131 elbette anlaml\u0131yd\u0131, o d\u00f6nemde hen\u00fcz do\u011fmam\u0131\u015f Almanlarca da bilinmeliydi. Bu konu, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n her kentinde bir soka\u011fa ya da alana ama \u00e7ok yere<\/strong> bu ad\u0131n verilmesiyle \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcld\u00fc.[99]<\/a> Okul tarih kitaplar\u0131nda kaplad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yer, \u015f\u00fckran duygular\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lamaya fazlas\u0131yla yeterdi.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6lgesi ve izleri, yaln\u0131z Almanya co\u011frafyas\u0131, yaln\u0131zca Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusu ve Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc i\u00e7in de\u011fil, b\u00fct\u00fcn d\u00fcnya i\u00e7in de anlaml\u0131 ve kal\u0131c\u0131 oldu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bir \u0130ngiliz gazetesinde Bismarck\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc betimleyen karikat\u00fcr (Sir John Tenniel, 29 Mart 1890).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u0130mparator, sald\u0131rgan bir d\u0131\u015f politika izleyece\u011fi kesin olan Prusyal\u0131 Prens Bernhard von B\u00fclow\u2019u (1849-1929) \u00f6nce d\u0131\u015f politikadan sorumlu devlet bakan\u0131 (1897), sonra \u015fans\u00f6lye (1900) yapt\u0131. Von B\u00fclow\u2019un babas\u0131 Bismarck\u2019\u0131n d\u0131\u015f politikadan sorumlu bakan\u0131yd\u0131 ama kendisi, babas\u0131n\u0131n tersine, Bismarck\u2019a ters d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc ve \u201c\u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fun istedi\u011fi\u201dni yerine getirecekti. Y\u0131llar \u00f6nce parlamentoda \u201cba\u015fka devletlerden geri kalmamak zorunda olduklar\u0131ndan\u201d s\u00f6z etti\u011fi ate\u015fli konu\u015fmas\u0131nda (6 Aral\u0131k 1897), hem sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, hem de bunu kendisinden ba\u015fka kimsenin yapamayaca\u011f\u0131 izlenimini vermeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak yeni g\u00f6reve aday olmu\u015ftu. \u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n [da] \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131 Do\u011fu Asya\u2019da\u201dyd\u0131, \u201cAlman giri\u015fimciler, Alman misyonerleri, Alman mallar\u0131, Alman gemileri, Alman bayra\u011f\u0131 ba\u015fka devletlerden geride kalmamal\u0131\u201dyd\u0131. \u201cAlmanya\u2019n\u0131n da g\u00fcne\u015fte yerleri olmal\u0131\u201dyd\u0131 ve Almanya \u201cg\u00fcne\u015fteki yerini almaya kararl\u0131\u201dyd\u0131!<\/p>\n

Ancak von B\u00fclow -\u00c7in\u2019de ve Uzak Do\u011fu\u2019da topraklar ele ge\u00e7irmek gibi- bir\u00e7ok \u201cba\u015far\u0131\u201dya imza att\u0131ysa da yeterli bir k\u0131vrakl\u0131\u011fa ve dirayetli bir ki\u015fili\u011fe sahip olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan d\u00f6nemini bulan\u0131kl\u0131klar i\u00e7inde ge\u00e7irdi. B\u00fclow\u2019dan esas istenen, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesiz ve dengesiz davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden imparatorun k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck d\u00fc\u015fmesini \u00f6nlemesiydi. Politika d\u0131\u015f\u0131na itilmesi de bunu yapamamas\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 oldu; II. Wilhelm\u2019in The Daily Telegraph<\/em>\u2019da yay\u0131mlanan s\u00f6yle\u015fisindeki gaflar\u0131[100]<\/a> onun sonunu getirecekti (1908). \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131n\u0131 engellememi\u015f, \u00f6nlem almam\u0131\u015f ve imparatorun s\u00f6zlerinin herkes taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6\u011frenilmesini \u201csa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u201d!<\/p>\n

Eksik ve dayatmal\u0131 \u201cbirlik\u201d, ne kadar birlik?<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c\u2026 Alman birli\u011finin kendisi, tehlikeli bir ayr\u0131l\u0131k, anla\u015fmazl\u0131k ve hatta baz\u0131 durumlarda i\u00e7 sava\u015f sorunuydu\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>Engels[101]<\/a><\/p>\n

\u201cAlman Birli\u011fi\u201d sa\u011flan\u0131yordu ve \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ama birli\u011fin i\u00e7inde yer alanlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu asl\u0131nda bu<\/strong> birli\u011fe ve b\u00f6yle<\/strong> bir birle\u015fmeye istekli de\u011fildi. Birli\u011fin \u00f6nemini ve yarar\u0131n\u0131 kabul edenlerin ve savunanlar\u0131n bile \u201cbirli\u011fe\u201d g\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc olmamas\u0131, geleneksel despotik y\u00f6ntemlere duyulan tepkiler ve \u201czor\u201dun kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fcceltilmesi ve pervas\u0131zca savunulmas\u0131ndand\u0131. \u201cBirlik\u201d rahats\u0131z bir birlik olmu\u015ftu ve \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckler bak\u0131m\u0131ndan da hi\u00e7 g\u00fcven vermiyordu. Ancak bunlar birli\u011fin \u201cuygulay\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n\u201d dikkat etmek ve g\u00f6rmek istemedi\u011fi \u015feylerdi. Engels\u2019in belirtti\u011fine g\u00f6re, Rusya\u2019ya kom\u015fu b\u00f6lgelerde, \u00f6rne\u011fin \u201cyar\u0131 Alman bir kent olan Prag\u201dda, \u201cRus kam\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, Alman \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden iyidir\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fc herkesin dilindeydi.[102]<\/a> Bu huzursuzlu\u011fu, u\u00e7 noktada olmakla birlikte ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i bir \u015fekilde, bir \u0130ngiliz tarih\u00e7i \u015f\u00f6yle ifade ediyor: \u201c1871 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u2018birle\u015fme\u2019 olarak ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen \u015fey, Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011finin herhangi bir tomurcuklanmas\u0131n\u0131n sonucu veya ifadesi de\u011fil, d\u0131\u015flanm\u0131\u015f bir Avusturya\u2019yla rekabet halindeki Prusya\u2019n\u0131n yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ve Prusyal\u0131 olmayan Almanya\u2019y\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrgele\u015ftirmesinin bir bi\u00e7imiydi.\u201d[103]<\/a> \u201c1850\u2019lerde ya\u015fanan ve K\u0131r\u0131m Sava\u015f\u0131 ile \u0130talya\u2019daki sorunlar\u0131 da i\u00e7eren bir dizi geli\u015fme sonucunda g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fczle\u015fmi\u015f Avusturya\u201d istismar edilmi\u015fti, ediliyordu!<\/p>\n

Birli\u011fe vurulan Prusya damgas\u0131, Birlikteki Prusya ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131, Prusyal\u0131lar d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda herkesin tepkisini \u00e7ekiyordu ve bu durumun de\u011fi\u015fme \u015fans\u0131 yoktu. Birlik, demokrasi kurallar\u0131n\u0131n ve anayasalc\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n \u00e7i\u011fnenmesiyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015f, sonradan onaylanmas\u0131 s\u00f6z konusu olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, hatta bu konuda onay istenmi\u015f gibi bir tavra tenezz\u00fcl bile edilmemi\u015fti. Sonu\u00e7ta, \u201cbirle\u015fenler\u201d i\u00e7in e\u015fitlik ve g\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fcl\u00fckten s\u00f6z edilemezdi.<\/p>\n

Reichtag ger\u00e7ekte g\u00f6stermelik gibiydi. Yetkili ve inisiyatifli olmas\u0131 gereken bu kurum,\u00a0 \u015fans\u00f6lyeyi, bakanlar\u0131, devlet sekreterlerini ve atamalar\u0131, ne denetleyebiliyor, ne de -gerekti\u011finde- \u00f6nleyebiliyordu.<\/p>\n

\u0130mparatorlu\u011fun ilan\u0131ndan yirmi y\u0131l sonra kesinle\u015fecek olan devletin bayra\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in \u00f6nerilen, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131ndaki ulusal cereyan\u0131n siyah-k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131-sar\u0131 olan bayrak renkleri de\u011fil -ki bu renkler 1848 Devriminin de bayrak renkleridir-, Prusya\u2019n\u0131n siyah-beyaz olan kendi renkleridir (bu iki renge sonradan k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 da eklendi).<\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca G\u00fcney Almanya, Bavyera ve Avusturya, kendileri asl\u0131nda zora kar\u015f\u0131 olmad\u0131klar\u0131, zorun kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6z\u00fcnde yanl\u0131\u015f bulmad\u0131klar\u0131 halde, \u201czorun sahipleri\u201dyle uyu\u015famayacaklar\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Zaten hi\u00e7bir zaman uyu\u015famam\u0131\u015flard\u0131 da.<\/p>\n

Alman Birli\u011fi, \u201cAvusturya uluslar\u0131\u201d i\u00e7in ise \u201cAlmanla\u015ft\u0131rma\u201ddan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildi. Bu \u00fclkelerdeki Almanlar Almanl\u0131klar\u0131na d\u00f6rt elle sar\u0131l\u0131rlarken, Almanla\u015fmak istemeyen Macarlar, \u00c7ekler, Bohemyal\u0131lar, Slavlar, \u0130talyanlar, Birli\u011fin i\u00e7inde yer almak istemediklerini a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6steriyorlar, Birli\u011fe, Almanya\u2019ya, Almanla\u015fmaya direniyorlard\u0131. \u201cUluslar hapishanesi\u201d sahibi Avusturya, Almanya\u2019daki Birlik\u00e7ilerle Avusturya\u2019daki Almanc\u0131lar\u0131n e\u011filimlerine kar\u015f\u0131 olarak bu konuda kendi uluslar\u0131yla uyum i\u00e7indeydi. Bu y\u00fczden Avusturyal\u0131 halklar\u0131n ulus\u00e7ulu\u011fu, y\u00fckselen ve \u00fcrk\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fc olan \u201cBirlik\u201d y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, Avusturya hakimiyetini tercih ediyor, ondan yana oluyordu. Bu karma\u015f\u0131k \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131-ulus\u00e7u-bask\u0131c\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131klar ve sarmaldan yararl\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kan Avusturya\u2019yd\u0131, uyru\u011fu alt\u0131ndaki halklar \u00fczerinde k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ve siyasi hakimiyetini bu sayede bir s\u00fcre daha s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilecekti.<\/p>\n

Ve i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi\u2026<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cBismarck\u2019\u0131n SPD\u2019ye kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc kampanya sadece sosyalist zihniyeti tasfiye etme giri\u015fiminde ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z olmakla kalmad\u0131, ayn\u0131 zamanda sosyalizmin 1913 itibar\u0131yla en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc unsur olarak Reichsstag\u2019daki nihai y\u00fckseli\u015fine de katk\u0131da bulundu.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

S. J. Lee[104]<\/a><\/p>\n

1848 Devrimlerinde y\u00fckselen i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin kar\u015f\u0131devrim taraf\u0131ndan ezilmesi, Bismarck d\u00f6neminde \u00f6nemli bir i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 direni\u015fi ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nleyememi\u015f, yayg\u0131n bir muhalefetin olu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 engelleyememi\u015fti. Bask\u0131lara direnme, Fransa ile sava\u015f s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda sava\u015fa kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kma, yeni yasalar tasarland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck eylemlere giri\u015fme; bunlar bu d\u00f6nemde de hi\u00e7 eksik olmad\u0131. Sosyalistler Yasas\u0131 (Ekim 1878) bu y\u00fckselmeye kar\u015f\u0131 bir \u00f6nlem olsun diye gerekli g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc. \u0130mparatora kar\u015f\u0131 d\u00fczenlenen suikast bahane edilerek kotar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bask\u0131 yasas\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden bir\u00e7ok i\u015f\u00e7i \u00f6nderi ve devrimci ayd\u0131n Almanya\u2019dan ka\u00e7mak zorunda kald\u0131.[105]<\/a><\/p>\n

Yasaklar ve sans\u00fcr s\u0131n\u0131r tan\u0131maz bir pervas\u0131zl\u0131kla uyguland\u0131. \u00dclkede \u00e7\u0131kan 47 gazeteden 45\u2019i yasakland\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Marx ve Engels, Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin Avrupa\u2019daki sosyalizme en yak\u0131n i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Prusya aristokrasisinin temsilcilerinden Robert Viktor Puttkamer (1810-1900; Bismarck\u2019\u0131n kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ailesindendi), ba\u015fbakan yard\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131 ve i\u00e7i\u015fleri bakan\u0131 olarak kitlesel davalar a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re devlet, muhalefete kar\u015f\u0131 uygulamalar\u0131nda \u201cnefsi m\u00fcdafaa\u201d yap\u0131yordu ve bunu yaparken kimse devleti \u201cara\u00e7lar\u0131n se\u00e7imi dolay\u0131s\u0131yla su\u00e7layamaz\u201dd\u0131. B\u00fct\u00fcn sendikalar kapat\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u00e7are olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00f6nlemler, Almanya Sosyalist \u0130\u015f\u00e7i Partisi\u2019nde (SAP) bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak disiplinin ve ama\u00e7l\u0131 direncin geli\u015fmesine katk\u0131da bulundu. Bu fark edildi\u011fi zaman da Bismarck bask\u0131y\u0131 \u201cdevlet sosyalizmi\u201d ile hafifleterek dengelemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Buna ra\u011fmen, ilerlemeler ve kazan\u0131lan yeni mevziler, i\u015f\u00e7iler taraf\u0131ndan, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n c\u00f6mertli\u011fine ve iyi niyetine de\u011fil, SAP\u2019\u0131n yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bask\u0131lara yoruluyordu.<\/p>\n

Bismarck i\u015f\u00e7i m\u00fccadelelerine bask\u0131y\u0131 bir i\u00e7 sorun olarak ele almad\u0131, bu konuda \u201culuslararas\u0131\u201d ve devletleraras\u0131 bir ortak tutum da gerekiyordu. Devrim yaln\u0131z Almanya\u2019y\u0131 de\u011fil, \u201cherkesi\u201d tehdit ediyordu. Devrime kar\u015f\u0131 olan devletlerle birlikte hareket etmeyi de planlad\u0131 ve 1872\u2019de Avusturya ve Rusya h\u00fck\u00fcmetleriyle Dreikaiserbund<\/strong>u (\u201c\u00dc\u00e7 \u0130mparator Birli\u011fi\u201dni) kurdu. Buna g\u00f6re, \u00fc\u00e7 h\u00fck\u00fcmet, sosyalizme ve benzer radikal ak\u0131mlara kar\u015f\u0131 al\u0131nacak \u00f6nlemlerde i\u015fbirli\u011fi yapmaya sorumlu k\u0131l\u0131n\u0131yordu. Ayr\u0131ca bununla monar\u015filer aras\u0131nda bir dayan\u0131\u015fma ve dayan\u0131\u015fman\u0131n \u015fart\u0131 olan bar\u0131\u015f da yarat\u0131labilirdi.[106]<\/a> \u201cKutsal ittifak\u201d modeli \u00fczerine kurulan bu birlik, d\u0131\u015f politika a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan da bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131yordu, hem Fransa\u2019y\u0131 d\u0131\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve tecrit etti\u011fi i\u00e7in yararl\u0131yd\u0131, hem de Rusya-Fransa yak\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc kesmeye yar\u0131yordu. (Almanya, 1879\u2019da Avusturya ile yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015fma ile Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cAvrupa sistemi\u201dnin temelini kurmu\u015ftu. Rusya\u2019n\u0131n uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ve \u0130talya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7ekilmesi, birli\u011fin \u201c\u00dc\u00e7l\u00fc \u0130ttifak\u201da d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesini sa\u011flayacakt\u0131r.)<\/p>\n

\u0130\u015f\u00e7ilerin esinlerini H. Heine\u2019den ald\u0131klar\u0131 Kilise kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 m\u00fccadele, ancak y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda geni\u015f etki yapacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\u0130\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n, Heine\u2019nin heykelinin dikilmesi s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda i\u00e7ine \u00e7ekildi\u011fi \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile ilgiliydi. \u0130\u015f\u00e7iler ve devrimciler do\u011fal olarak Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131yd\u0131lar ve Yahudi Heine\u2019yi savunmak gerekince bu konuda ate\u015fli bir hale geliyorlard\u0131. Almanya b\u00f6ylece, \u201chem Yahudi, hem ayaktak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n \u015fairi, hem bozguncu ve d\u00fczen bozucu, hem de Almanya d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131<\/strong> Heine\u201d i\u00e7in ikiye ayr\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Alman sosyal demokrat i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin kurucular\u0131ndan \u201cPrusyac\u0131\u201d Ferdinand Lasalle (1825-1864).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Heine\u2019nin K\u0131\u015f Masal\u0131<\/em>, Enternasyonal\u2019in kutsal kitab\u0131 gibiydi. Y\u00f6neticiler, kitle kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndaki konu\u015fmalar\u0131na K\u0131\u015f Masal\u0131<\/em>\u2019ndan dizelerle ba\u015flarlar ya da konu\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 onlarla bitirirlerdi.<\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l Almanya\u2019s\u0131n\u0131n devrimci geli\u015fme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi, Alman i\u015f\u00e7ilerin kitle hareketlerine, Avrupa\u2019da zaman bak\u0131m\u0131ndan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 en son kat\u0131lanlardan olmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Bunun esas nedeni, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n Almanya\u2019da 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131ndan sonra ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131d\u0131r. 1830\u2019da k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde ya\u015fayanlar\u0131n kentlerde ya\u015fayanlara oran\u0131 1:4 iken, 1860 itibar\u0131yla bu oran 2:3, 1882\u2019de 3:2, 1895\u2019te 4:1 olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

Bu y\u00fczden B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devrimi d\u00f6nemi ve hemen sonras\u0131nda Almanya\u2019da i\u015f\u00e7i hareketleri olmam\u0131\u015f, Almanya Devrimle, ayn\u0131 zamanda, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131sal yetersizli\u011fi y\u00fcz\u00fcnden birle\u015fememi\u015fti. Ancak bu gecikmenin b\u00fcy\u00fck yararlar\u0131 da olacakt\u0131r. Birincisi, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede say\u0131ca artmas\u0131n\u0131n sonucu olan h\u0131zl\u0131 politikle\u015fme ve buna ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 siyasal geli\u015fmelerdir. K\u00f6yl\u00fck b\u00f6lgelerden kentlere akan kitlelerin siyasetteki yans\u0131mas\u0131, devrimci partinin hem ortaya g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u015fekilde \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131nda, hem de s\u00fcrekli b\u00fcy\u00fck art\u0131\u015f g\u00f6steren oylar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. SAP\u2019\u0131n 1880\u2019lerin sonunda (ilk girdi\u011fi se\u00e7imde, 1887) 500 bine yak\u0131n olan oyu, 90\u2019da, d\u00f6rt kata yak\u0131n art\u0131p 1,5 milyona y\u00fckseldi. \u0130kincisi, Avrupa\u2019da y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131na do\u011fru ba\u015flayan ve esas olarak y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda etkisini g\u00f6steren i\u015f\u00e7i m\u00fccadelelerinin, \u00f6zellikle \u0130ngiliz ve Frans\u0131z i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin m\u00fccadelelerinin \u00e7ok pahal\u0131 olan tecr\u00fcbelerini de\u011ferlendirebilme ve kullanabilme ayr\u0131cal\u0131\u011f\u0131na Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin sahip olmas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7o\u011fu ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olan Avrupa i\u015f\u00e7i m\u00fccadelelerindeki acemilikler, hatalar ve yan\u0131lg\u0131lardan ka\u00e7\u0131nma olana\u011f\u0131, ba\u015fka hi\u00e7bir i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinde bulunmayan bir avantaja d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr Almanya\u2019da.<\/p>\n

\u0130\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerinin ge\u00e7 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n ilk sosyalist partisi[107]<\/a> de 1885\u2019te Almanya\u2019da do\u011fmu\u015ftu. Bismarck taraf\u0131ndan kapat\u0131lmas\u0131, bu partinin y\u00fckseli\u015fini \u00f6nleyemeyecekti. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n hesap edemedi\u011fi, b\u00fcy\u00fck sanayile\u015fme hamlesinin h\u0131zla bir i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 yarataca\u011f\u0131, bu s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n kendi siyasal \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesini kurabilece\u011fi ve bu \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmenin bask\u0131lara kar\u015f\u0131n geli\u015febilece\u011fiydi.<\/p>\n

Hata ve \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcs\u00fczl\u00fck o derecedeydi ki, SAP\u2019a bask\u0131lar, b\u0131rakal\u0131m partinin engellenmesini, 1891\u2019de (Erfurt\u2019ta) SPD ad\u0131n\u0131 alm\u0131\u015f partinin[108]<\/a>1913\u2019te Reichstag\u2019da en b\u00fcy\u00fck parti olmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7acakt\u0131. (Partinin 1912 se\u00e7imlerinde ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 oy 4 milyonun, 1914\u2019teki \u00fcye say\u0131s\u0131 bir milyonun \u00fcst\u00fcndeydi; se\u00e7imde oy oran\u0131 se\u00e7menin \u00fc\u00e7te birinden, parlamentoda milletvekili say\u0131s\u0131 ise y\u00fczden fazlayd\u0131.)[109]<\/a><\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi, bu nicel geli\u015fmenin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda Avrupa\u2019daki b\u00fct\u00fcn di\u011fer i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerine g\u00f6re teorik ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bir \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011fe sahiptir. \u201cRusya hari\u00e7, b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa sosyal demokrat hareketi i\u00e7inde Marksizm ile g\u00f6rece en yak\u0131n temas\u0131 kurmu\u015f ve ondan g\u00f6rece en fazla etkilenmi\u015f olan\u0131, Alman sosyal demokrasisidir.\u201d[110]<\/a> Alman felsefesinin, bilimsel sosyalizmin kaynaklar\u0131ndan biri olmas\u0131n\u0131n bir sonucudur bu \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck ayn\u0131 zamanda.<\/p>\n

Bu sayede, Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi, teorik, siyasal ve ekonomik m\u00fccadeleleri birle\u015ftirebilme yetene\u011fine de sahip olmu\u015ftur. Bunlar\u0131n sonucu olarak SPD, di\u011fer Avrupa devrimci partilerine oranla en etkili ve en geli\u015fmi\u015f hareketleri y\u00f6nlendiren parti olarak II. Enternasyonal\u2019de en fazla itibar\u0131 ve a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 olan partiydi. Ayr\u0131ca Marksizmin II. Enternasyonal\u2019deki etkinli\u011fi de Alman devrimcilerinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve y\u00f6nlendirmeleri sonucuydu.<\/p>\n

B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar y\u00fcz\u00fcnden Marx ve Engels, Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin Avrupa\u2019daki i\u015f\u00e7i hareketleri i\u00e7inde sosyalizme en yak\u0131n i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi oldu\u011funu ve Alman i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin siyasi m\u00fccadelede Avrupa\u2019da en ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olacak i\u015f\u00e7iler olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131.[111]<\/a> Kom\u00fcnist Partisi Manifestosu<\/em>\u2019nda Almanya\u2019n\u0131n, \u201c17. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u0130ngiltere\u2019si ve 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l Fransa\u2019s\u0131ndakinden \u00e7ok daha geli\u015fmi\u015f bir proletarya\u201d taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lacak devrimlerin e\u015fi\u011finde oldu\u011funu yazm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.[112]<\/a> Nitekim \u00f6yle de oldu, Alman sosyal demokrasisi 1875 ile 1914 aras\u0131ndaki d\u00f6nem boyunca d\u00fcnya i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekecekti.[113]<\/a><\/p>\n

B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlara kar\u015f\u0131n Wilhelm Liebneckt\u2019e g\u00f6re Almanya\u2019da tek tek i\u015f\u00e7iler \u201cekonomik ve siyasal e\u011fitim bak\u0131m\u0131ndan \u0130ngiliz ve Frans\u0131z i\u015f\u00e7ilerinden \u00e7ok \u00e7ok geri\u201dydi. Bunun, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a, okullarda \u201cokuma-yazma ve biraz hesap d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda\u201d ba\u015fka bir \u015fey \u00f6\u011fretilmemesini buyurmas\u0131 ve uygulatmas\u0131yla ilgisi vard\u0131 elbette. Bismarck m\u00fcfredatlarda \u201ctarih, co\u011frafya ve do\u011fa bilimlerine hi\u00e7 yer verilmemeli\u201d diyordu.<\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonunda parlayan ve Lenin\u2019in \u00f6nderli\u011finde ilerleyen Rus Devrimi, Alman devrimci hareketinden hem \u00e7ok etkilenecek, hem de bu etkilenmeyle Alman devrimci m\u00fccadelesinden \u00e7ok yararlanacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Alman i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi, sanayi \u00fclkelerindeki i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerine g\u00f6re gecikmesini adeta telafi etmek istercesine k\u00f6kl\u00fc ve yayg\u0131n bir geli\u015fme de g\u00f6stermi\u015f, bunun sonucu olarak etkileri b\u00fcy\u00fck olmu\u015ftur. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n temel \u00f6zellikleri olan devlet\u00e7i e\u011filimlerle H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k, hem i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerinden etkilenmi\u015f, hem de i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerini etkilemi\u015f ve i\u015f\u00e7i hareketleri i\u00e7inde yans\u0131malar g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Devlet taraf\u0131ndan korunmas\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fclen sosyalist \u00e7izgi ile H\u0131ristiyan sosyalizmi olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan yeni ak\u0131mlar ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Alman sosyal demokrat i\u015f\u00e7i hareketinin kurucular\u0131ndan \u201cPrusyac\u0131\u201d Ferdinand Lasalle (1825-1864), Marx\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle \u201cAlman i\u015f\u00e7ilerini on be\u015f y\u0131l s\u00fcren uykular\u0131ndan uyand\u0131rm\u0131\u015f\u201d oldu\u011fu halde ve uyand\u0131rm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, sonradan i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi ve sosyalizmi devletle birle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ilke de\u011fi\u015fikliklerini g\u00fcndeme getirmi\u015fti. \u0130yi bir hatip ve etkili bir eylemci olan Lasalle yoksullara devletin yard\u0131m etmesini, bunun i\u00e7in de parlamentolarda i\u015f\u00e7ilerin b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7o\u011funluklar olu\u015fturarak devleti buna zorlamas\u0131n\u0131, sonucunda da devletin yoksullar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131 savunan ve \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckleri uygulayan bir hale gelece\u011fini savunuyordu. Ona g\u00f6re devlet (Marx\u2019tan farkl\u0131 ve Marx\u2019a ters olarak), egemen s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n bask\u0131 arac\u0131 de\u011fildi. Bu y\u00fczden, devlet\u00e7i olma temelinde Bismarck\u2019la birle\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011fu yorumlar\u0131yla de\u011ferlendirilecekti.[114]<\/a><\/p>\n

Burjuvala\u015fm\u0131\u015f Prusyal\u0131 Junkerlerin ideologu Johann Karl Rodbertus (1805-1875), a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a \u201cPrusya devlet sosyalizmi\u201d tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 kullanarak \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Prusya hakimiyetindeki ve \u201czorla Birlik<\/strong>\u201dini \u00e7ok olumlu bulan i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi \u00f6nderlerinden Johann Baptist Schweitzer (1833-1875), \u201cburjuva demokrasisine bo\u015f verelim\u201d, \u201cyukar\u0131dan\/tepeden sosyalizmi getirelim\u201d diyordu.<\/p>\n

Mainz ba\u015fpiskoposu Wilhelm Emanuel Freiherr von Ketteler\u2019in (1811-1877) \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, s\u00f6zc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ve teorisyenli\u011fini yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 dinci ak\u0131m ise, d\u00f6neminde, hem Katolik Kilisesini ve hem de i\u015f\u00e7i hareketini b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde etkiledi, sonradan geli\u015fecek olan Kilisenin sosyal faaliyetlerinin de yarat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 ve ba\u015flat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 oldu.<\/p>\n

Din adam\u0131 Adolf St\u00f6cker\u2019in kurdu\u011fu bir parti sosyalizme y\u00f6nelen i\u015f\u00e7i kitlelerini Kilise \u00e7er\u00e7evesi i\u00e7ine hapsetmeyi ama\u00e7l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Drang nach osten – \u201cDrang nach nahosten\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201c\u0130mparatorluk Almanya\u2019s\u0131 s\u0131cak denizlere, etkisi alt\u0131na ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 \u00fclkelerinden ge\u00e7irece\u011fi demiryoluyla inmeyi planl\u0131yordu. Politikac\u0131lar, kitle kurulu\u015flar\u0131, tabii bu k\u00e2rl\u0131 i\u015fin hesab\u0131n\u0131 tutmu\u015f olan i\u015fadamlar\u0131 ve ordu, y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n teknik harikas\u0131 sayd\u0131klar\u0131 bu demiryolunun Almanya\u2019n\u0131n candamar\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinde birle\u015fiyorlard\u0131.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

\u0130. Ortayl\u0131[115]<\/a><\/p>\n

1890 sonras\u0131 d\u00f6nemdeki b\u00fct\u00fcn san\u015f\u00f6lyeler Bismarck \u00e7izgisinin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir yol izlediler. Ordu komutanlar\u0131 yeni uygulamalardan umutluydular ama ayn\u0131 zamanda da sab\u0131rs\u0131zd\u0131lar. Temeli Prusya\u2019n\u0131n bask\u0131c\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla \u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f monar\u015finin ve se\u00e7kin y\u00f6neticilerin otokratik gelenekleri, parlamenter demokrasinin hakk\u0131 olan tavizlerle ba\u011fda\u015famazd\u0131 ve ba\u011fda\u015fam\u0131yordu. Hakim s\u0131n\u0131flar tabandan y\u00fckselen bir bask\u0131yla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yayd\u0131 ve devrim tedirginli\u011fi ya\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. Reichstag\u2019da insiyatifin ve kontrol\u00fcn sosyalistlerin, ilericilerin ve liberallerin eline ge\u00e7mesinden korkuluyordu. B\u00fcy\u00fck sanayi hamlesinin h\u0131zl\u0131 ve a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 derecede b\u00fcy\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131, feodal s\u0131n\u0131f anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131ndan, imkan oldu\u011funda bir gerici darbenin yasama g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc yok edece\u011finden, oy haklar\u0131n\u0131n ellerinden al\u0131naca\u011f\u0131ndan vb. kayg\u0131 duyuyordu. Geni\u015f orta s\u0131n\u0131flar parlamenter demokrasiye bel ba\u011flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131 ama k\u00f6t\u00fcmserdiler. Gerilimin siyasal ortam\u0131 t\u0131kamaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu \u015fartlarda imparator, d\u0131\u015f sorunlar\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kararak i\u00e7 bask\u0131lar\u0131 gev\u015fetmeyi do\u011fru g\u00f6rmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cd\u00fc\u015fmanlara\u201d ve \u201cmilliyet\u00e7ili\u011fe\u201d dayanarak i\u00e7 sorunlar\u0131 \u201c\u00e7\u00f6zme\u201d anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 hortlam\u0131\u015f, i\u00e7 sorunlar\u0131n tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 tavsam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Almanya k\u0131tasal bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kar ve bir d\u00fcnya g\u00fcc\u00fcne d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrken \u00fclke ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar \u00fczerinde oyalanamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ancak sorunlu olan bir \u015fey vard\u0131, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n bir d\u00fcnya g\u00fcc\u00fc olma, bir d\u00fcnya g\u00fcc\u00fc gibi davranma \u00e7abalar\u0131 \u00e7ok beceriksizce, kaba, fazla sald\u0131rgan, \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcz ve a\u015f\u0131r\u0131yd\u0131. Bismarck, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ihtiyac\u0131 olan uzun menzilli yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011fa uzak durmakla do\u011fru yapmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ama sonras\u0131nda \u201cdo\u011fru\u201d politikay\u0131 uygulayanlar ayar\u0131 tutturamayarak daha k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc yapacaklard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Di\u011ferleri gibi Almanya da emperyalistti ama bat\u0131c\u0131 ve \u00fcrk\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fc \u015feylerden ka\u00e7\u0131nma yetene\u011fi hi\u00e7 yoktu. K\u00f6t\u00fc ve sald\u0131rgan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc gizlemeye sanki ihtiya\u00e7 duymuyordu. Ge\u00e7 kalm\u0131\u015f s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci olarak Afrika\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde yerli halklara, Herero ve Nama toplumlar\u0131na uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 soyk\u0131r\u0131m birka\u00e7 y\u0131l i\u00e7inde bu halklar\u0131n n\u00fcfusunun yar\u0131ya inmesine yol a\u00e7acakt\u0131.[116]<\/a> Engellere ve i\u015fini zorla\u015ft\u0131ranlara kar\u015f\u0131 hi\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fclmedi\u011fi kadar sert ve ac\u0131mas\u0131zd\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Almanya Konfederasyonu\u2019nun (1866-71) ve Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun (1871\u20131918) bayra\u011f\u0131: Siyah-beyaz-k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

En b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00fc\u00e7 olmay\u0131 hedefleme, d\u00fc\u015fmanlar \u00fcretmi\u015fti. D\u00fcnyan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck donanmas\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken kara ordusu ve bir\u00e7ok ba\u015fka \u015fey biraz ihmal edilmi\u015fti. Silahlanmaya, sava\u015fa ve sava\u015fmaya \u00f6nem verme, diplomasinin bir kenara at\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 getirmi\u015fti (zaten Bismarck\u2019\u0131n gidi\u015fiyle birlikte \u201cdiplomasi\u201d de bitmi\u015fti). Akl\u0131n yerini \u00e7ok zaman duygular alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Yeterince haz\u0131rl\u0131k yapmak ve gerekti\u011finde geri \u00e7ekilmek konular\u0131nda zaaflar ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00c7ok cepheye b\u00f6l\u00fcnme, ba\u015far\u0131 \u015fans\u0131n\u0131 yok etmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Emperyalist olarak girgindi, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcyd\u00fc ama eksikliydi.<\/p>\n

\u201c\u00d6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcl\u00fck\u201d Bismarck\u2019t\u0131, ondan sonrakiler ise biraz bile olsa \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fc olamayacak kadar frenden yoksundular.<\/p>\n

Giderilemeyen olumsuz \u00f6zellikler, emperyalistler aras\u0131 sava\u015flarda Almanlar\u0131n hep yenilmesini do\u011furacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n \u00f6n yaz\u0131lar\u0131 denebilecek olan iki yaz\u0131m\u0131z Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em> dergisinde daha \u00f6nce yay\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Birlikte okunmas\u0131 yararl\u0131 olacakt\u0131r. \u201c1830 ve 1848 Devrimleri, Almanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131devrim\u201d, say\u0131: 123, May\u0131s 2014, s.44-54 ve \u201cAlmanya Nas\u0131l Almanya Oldu? Ya da Bismarck ve Tarihte Zorun Rol\u00fc\u201d, say\u0131: 124, Haziran 2014, s.46-53.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> Kurucusu hukuk\u00e7u Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779-1861) olan ak\u0131m, Volksgeist<\/em>\u2019\u0131 (\u201chalk ruhu\u201dnu) y\u00fcceltiyor, yasalar\u0131n tarihten gelen kitle e\u011filimlerine uygun olmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini savunarak hukukta halk kuyruk\u00e7ulu\u011fu yap\u0131yordu. Ak\u0131m\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fcleri Prusya hukukunun yarat\u0131lmas\u0131nda g\u00f6rev ald\u0131lar ve yetkinle\u015ftirilmesinde de \u00f6nemli roller oynad\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> Sonradan Hitler\u2019in kendine yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131raca\u011f\u0131, \u201ctoplumun ulu \u00f6nderi\u201d anlam\u0131ndaki \u201cF\u00fchrer\u201d s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ve kavram\u0131n\u0131 yaratanlar Alman romantikleriydi.<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"
Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 (1871\u20131918).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

[4]<\/a> Johann Gotlieb Fichte, Napoleon sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve Frans\u0131z i\u015fgaline kar\u015f\u0131 oldu\u011fu gibi, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011fe de kar\u015f\u0131yd\u0131. Ancak Fichte, Cermen yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve da\u011f\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden Alman dilinin geni\u015f bir co\u011frafyada konu\u015fuluyor olmas\u0131na dayanarak s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n dilsel olmas\u0131n\u0131 bile savunmu\u015ftu. 1807-1808\u2019de kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 Alman Ulusuna S\u00f6ylevler<\/em>, Alman ulus\u00e7ulu\u011funun ilk bildirisi<\/strong>dir. Fichte burada, Almanlar\u0131n \u201c\u0131rk safl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201dn\u0131 en \u00e7ok korumu\u015f millet oldu\u011funu da belirtiyordu.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a> Shakespeare \u00e7evirileriyle tan\u0131nan August Wilhelm (1767-1845) ve Friedrich (1772-1829) von Schlegel Alman romantizminin se\u00e7kin adlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yer alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. \u00dcniversitede verdikleri dersler, aralar\u0131nda Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) gibi sonraki d\u00f6nemin \u00fcnl\u00fcleri olacaklar da bulunmak \u00fczere ayd\u0131nlar ve sanat\u00e7\u0131lar aras\u0131nda \u00e7ok ilgi g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854), \u00fcniversitelerde dersleri ilgiyle izlenen zaman\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcnl\u00fc filozofuydu. Konular\u0131n\u0131 siyasetle ili\u015fkili olarak ele almas\u0131, Engels, Bakunin gibi siyasete ilgi duyan gen\u00e7 ayd\u0131nlar\u0131n derslerine girmesini sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. 1841\u2019de Prusya Kral\u0131 IV. Friedrich Wilhelm (1795-1861) taraf\u0131ndan Hegel felsefesinin etkisinin k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in Berlin\u2019e \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Orta \u00c7a\u011f \u00f6zlemlisi, Alman romantizminin koruyucusu ve dinci kral, ayd\u0131n \u00f6zellikleriyle Alman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 bi\u00e7imlendirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> Egmond, asl\u0131nda tarihsel olarak \u00e7ekingen, korkak ve silik bir ki\u015filik olmakla birlikte Goethe taraf\u0131ndan, \u0130spanya\u2019ya ba\u015fkald\u0131ran ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k\u00e7\u0131 ve m\u00fccadeleci bir kahraman olarak yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sonradan, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l liberalizmini simgeledi\u011fi, insan \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, insan\u0131n gelecekle ilgili giri\u015fimlerini kar\u015f\u0131layan tipleme oldu\u011fu yorumlar\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 Egmond, Beethoven\u2019\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir operas\u0131na da ad ve konu olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> Otuz Y\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n dirayetsiz komutan\u0131 soyguncu ve ya\u011fmac\u0131 Wallerstein\u2019\u0131 Schiller bilge bir askere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc (bkz. \u201cOtuz Y\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131\u201d, Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em>, say\u0131 95, Ocak 2012, s.62). Marie Stuart ise monar\u015finin bir kurban\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> Romantizmin \u00f6nemli adlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda girecek Prof. Ernst Moritz Arndt\u2019\u0131n (1769-1860) \u00fcniversitedeki g\u00f6revi 1820\u2019den 40\u2019a kadar elinden al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sonralar\u0131 Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 olarak \u00fcnlendi. Hitler\u2019in sar\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 \u201cReich\u201d kavram\u0131na \u00f6zel anlam\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fckleyen ki\u015fiydi.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a> Prusyal\u0131 Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), filozof, ilahiyat\u00e7\u0131 ve edebiyat ele\u015ftirmeniydi. Eski Alman diline ve mitolojiye ilgisiyle k\u00f6klere y\u00f6nelme konusunda ayd\u0131nlar\u0131 etkiledi ve Alman k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn olu\u015fumuna katk\u0131larda bulundu. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fteki \u201cAlman Alt\u0131n \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u201dn\u0131 ortaya atan Herder, yak\u0131n d\u00f6nemlerde (21. y\u00fczy\u0131la do\u011fru ve iki Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birle\u015fmesi g\u00fcnlerinde) tekrar \u00f6nem kazanan \u201cVolk\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131n da yarat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131yd\u0131. E\u011fitime ve k\u00fclt\u00fcre verdi\u011fi \u00f6nem, geni\u015f bir toplumsal payla\u015f\u0131m konusu oldu, onayland\u0131. Klasisizme d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na, ayd\u0131nlanma ak\u0131lc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve Kant\u2019a olumsuz ele\u015ftirel yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n Avrupamerkezcili\u011fin ilk ele\u015ftirisini yapan ayd\u0131n olarak da bilinir (bu konuda bkz. Robert Bernasconi, \u201cHerder\u2019in Avrupa-Merkezcilik Ele\u015ftirisi\u201d, Irk Kavram\u0131n\u0131 Kim \u0130cat Etti? \/ Felsefi D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncede Irk ve Irk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k<\/em>, Metis Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1999, s. 66-99).<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a> Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811), oyun yazar\u0131 olarak tan\u0131nd\u0131, \u00f6nemli \u00f6yk\u00fcleri de vard\u0131r. \u00dcnl\u00fc roman\u0131 Michael Kohlhaas<\/em> d\u00f6nemini \u00e7ok etkilemi\u015ftir. Kahraman\u0131, haks\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa u\u011frayan ve hakk\u0131n\u0131 arad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in ba\u015f\u0131na i\u015fler gelen ancak her \u015feye ra\u011fmen m\u00fccadelesine devam eden bir k\u00f6yl\u00fcd\u00fcr. (T\u00fcrk\u00e7esi i\u00e7in bkz. Cumhuriyet, \u0130stanbul 1999)<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a> Eserlerinde Novalis ad\u0131n\u0131 kullanan ve bu adla bilinen Friedrich von Hardenberg (1772-1801), ilk romantiklerin \u015fairidir. Evlenece\u011fi gen\u00e7 k\u0131z\u0131n zamans\u0131z \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle h\u00fcz\u00fcnl\u00fc, melankolik ve mistik bir ruh haline girmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a> Oyun yazar\u0131 Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872), Weh dem, der l\u00fcgt!<\/em> (\u201cYalan S\u00f6yleyenin Vay Haline\u201d, 1838) adl\u0131 oyununda H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k \u00f6ncesi Cermen soylar\u0131n\u0131n kutsanmas\u0131 ve y\u00fcceltilmesiyle alay etmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a> Ok\u00fcltizm, simya ve b\u00fcy\u00fc d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bu ak\u0131mlar\u0131n idealist-metafizik \u00f6zelliklerini g\u00f6sterirken, bunlar\u0131n aras\u0131ndaki \u201cCo\u015fkunluk\u201d ak\u0131m\u0131 (Sturm und Drang<\/em>), Alman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn ve sanat d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda \u00e7ok uzun s\u00fcre kalmamas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, Almanl\u0131k ve gelenek-ge\u00e7mi\u015f \u00fczerine kurulu Alman ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 etkileyen en \u00f6nemli ak\u0131m olarak tarihe ge\u00e7ti.<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a> Davies, s.385.<\/p>\n

[16]<\/a> Burada Goethe, sanat eseri olarak etkilendi\u011fi katedral dolay\u0131s\u0131yla \u201cGotik\u2019in eskiden sahip oldu\u011fu k\u00f6t\u00fc \u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fi\u015ftirmeye ve bunu [katedrali] ulusumuzun Alman mimarisi olarak savunmaya ba\u015flad\u0131m\u201d demi\u015fti. Bkz. Von deutscher Baukunst<\/em>, 1782, 16 sayfal\u0131k kitap\u00e7\u0131k; akt. James, s.50.<\/p>\n

[17]<\/a> Sidney Finkelstein, Besteci ve Ulus \/ M\u00fczikte Halk Miras\u0131<\/em>, Pencere Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1995, s.235-36.<\/p>\n

[18]<\/a> Sidney Finkelstein, M\u00fczik Neyi Anlat\u0131r<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1996, s.66-69;<\/p>\n

[19]<\/a> Anatoli Luna\u00e7arski, Sosyalizm ve Edebiyat<\/em>, Y\u00f6n Yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k, \u0130stanbul 1993, s.60.<\/p>\n

[20]<\/a> \u00d6rne\u011fin, Alexander Dumas (p\u00e9re), Michel Z\u00e9vaco.<\/p>\n

[21]<\/a> Eric Hobsbawm, Haydutlar<\/em>, Logos Yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k, \u0130stanbul 1990, s.115.<\/p>\n

[22]<\/a> Ayn\u0131 eser<\/em>, s.9. Ge\u00e7 Orta \u00c7a\u011fda, d\u00fczenli ordulara ge\u00e7i\u015fle silahl\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak \u00f6nemini, burjuvazinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131yla ekonomik temelini kaybeden \u015f\u00f6valyelik kurumunun mensuplar\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa\u2019da soyguncu ve haydut olmu\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

[23]<\/a> Tantrizm, insanla evren aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiyi gizemli ve b\u00fcy\u00fcl\u00fc s\u00f6ylemle sunan \u00f6\u011freti; teozofizm ise insans\u0131 ve insan d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki ilahi hikmet \u00f6\u011fretisi.<\/p>\n

[24]<\/a> En \u00fcnl\u00fc imparatorlar\u0131 I. Friedrich (Barbarossa), VI. Heinrich ve II. Friedrich olan Staufer Hanedan\u0131 (Hohenstaufen) d\u00f6neminde imparatorluk \u0130spanya ve Sicilya\u2019dan Balt\u0131k\u2019a kadar \u00e7ok geni\u015f topraklara h\u00fckmediyordu. \u0130mparatorlar\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fc pek, yenilik\u00e7i ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrl\u00fc olmalar\u0131, Papal\u0131kla \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, d\u00f6nemin \u00f6zellikleriyle ve \u015f\u00f6valyelik k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcyle birle\u015ferek s\u00f6ylencelerin do\u011fmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

[25]<\/a> Yunan mitolojisi d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcn\u00fc ve (Osmanl\u0131ya kar\u015f\u0131) Yunan \u201cba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k sava\u015f\u0131\u201dn\u0131n fedaisi \u0130ngiliz \u015fair Lord Byron (George Gordon Noel, 1788-1824), ayd\u0131nlar\u0131n g\u00f6zdesidir. Byron \u00e7evirmeni Elise von Hohenhausen\u2019in (1789-1857) Berlin\u2019deki \u201csalon\u201du, gelmek isteyenleri i\u00e7ine alamayacak ve geri \u00e7evirecek kadar dolmaktad\u0131r. Cereyana kap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f delikanl\u0131 Heine\u2019nin o g\u00fcnlerde salondaki unvan\u0131 \u201cAlman Byron\u2019u\u201ddur.<\/p>\n

[26]<\/a> Bu konuda bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Carlo Ginzburg, \u201cCermen Mitolojisi ve Nazizm\u201d, Efsaneler, Amblemler, \u0130zler \/ Morfoloji ve Tarih<\/em>, K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2007, s.253-288.<\/p>\n

[27]<\/a> Jacop (1785-1863) ve Wilhelm (1786-1859) Grimm karde\u015fler, sonradan Marchenstrasse<\/em> ad\u0131 verilecek olan 600 kilometrelik bir g\u00fczerg\u00e2hta masal derlemeleri yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Derledikleri masallar, yaln\u0131zca Alman mitolojisinin \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na hizmet etmekle kalmad\u0131, Alman ulus\u00e7ulu\u011funun bi\u00e7imlenmesini de kolayla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. (T\u00fcrk\u00e7esi i\u00e7in bkz. Grimm Masallar\u0131<\/em>, Cilt 1 ve 2, Pinhan Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2012) Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla Alman dilinin olu\u015fmas\u0131na katk\u0131 sa\u011flayan Grimm karde\u015fler -yar\u0131m kalmakla birlikte- Almancan\u0131n ilk b\u00fcy\u00fck s\u00f6zl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc haz\u0131rlamaya da giri\u015fmi\u015flerdi. 1835\u2019te Cermen Mitolojisi<\/em> adl\u0131 \u00fcnl\u00fc ve \u00f6nemli eserlerini yazd\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

[28]<\/a> Her ne kadar felsefi alanda ilk \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin Locke, Kant, Hegel gibi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerin eserlerinde oldu\u011fu biliniyorsa da, bilimsel, toplumsal ve siyasal hayata yans\u0131m\u0131\u015f haliyle \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k esas olarak bu d\u00f6nemde ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

[29]<\/a> Marx, Yahudi Sorunu<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara, 1977, s.8.<\/p>\n

[30]<\/a> Marlis Steinert, Hitler<\/em>, C.H. Verlag, M\u00fcnchen 1983, s.73 ve Martin Berndt ve Ernst Schulin, Die Juden als Minderheit in der Geschichte<\/em>, M\u00fcnchen 1981, s.249-270; akt. Efgan Can\u015fen, Hitler\u2019den Torunlar\u0131na -Almanya\u2019da Eski ve Yeni Sa\u011f<\/em>, G\u00f6\u00e7ebe Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1997, s.84.<\/p>\n

[31]<\/a> Derne\u011fin kurucular\u0131 aras\u0131nda hukuk\u00e7u Eduard Gans (1798-1839) ile \u015fair Heine de vard\u0131r. Heine 1825\u2019te vaftiz olduktan sonra hukuk doktoru olacakt\u0131r (Kaufmann, \u201cHeine und seine Zeit\u201d, s.XVIII)! Gans ise H\u0131ristiyan olmas\u0131 sayesinde 1831\u2019de Berlin \u00dcniversitesi dekan\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

[32]<\/a> Serdar Din\u00e7er, Almanya. Bir K\u0131\u015f Masal\u0131 ve Diyalekti\u011fin \u015eairi Heinrich Heine<\/em>, Ankara 2006, s.74.<\/p>\n

[33]<\/a> Ren Nehri boylar\u0131ndaki Yahudi k\u00f6ylerinin, Alman toplumundan tecrit edilmi\u015f ya\u015fant\u0131lar\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden veba salg\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 ve bu y\u00fczden Yahudi yerle\u015fimlerinde veba \u00f6l\u00fcmlerinin bazen hi\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fclmeyi\u015fi onlar\u0131n bu nedenle su\u00e7lanmalar\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yordu. 1349\u2019da, Ren Nehri boyunda ya\u015fayan Yahudilerin Polonya ve daha do\u011fuya ka\u00e7abilenleri d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda hepsi \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Salg\u0131nlar, \u201cTanr\u0131n\u0131n gazab\u0131\u201d veya Yahudiler gibi d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131n \u201ck\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fckleri\u201d oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in, bula\u015f\u0131c\u0131 \u00f6zellikleriyle d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclm\u00fcyorlar ve bunun i\u00e7in hi\u00e7 bir tedbir al\u0131nm\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

[34]<\/a> Oscar Karbach\u2019tan akt. Arendt, 1998, s.208 not 54.<\/p>\n

[35]<\/a> 1890\u2019da 65 milyonluk Almanya\u2019da 500 bin Yahudi varken, Budape\u015fte\u2019nin n\u00fcfusunun d\u00f6rtte biri Yahudiydi, ama hi\u00e7 bir zaman Macaristan\u2019da antisemitik bir siyasi hareket ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmad\u0131.<\/p>\n

[36]<\/a> Bismarck sonras\u0131 d\u00f6nemlerde de, \u201cYahudi halk\u0131na ve ayd\u0131nlar\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k, Yahudi mali \u00e7evrelerine ve zenginlerine dostluk\u201d \u015feklindeki \u201cikili tutum\u201d hep s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

[37]<\/a> Stefan Breuer, Milliyet\u00e7ilikler ve Fa\u015fizmler \/ Fransa, \u0130talya ve Almanya \u00d6rnekleri<\/em>, \u0130leti\u015fim Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2010, s.231.<\/p>\n

[38]<\/a> Fulbrook, s.133.<\/p>\n

[39]<\/a> Marx, 1977, s.12.<\/p>\n

[40]<\/a> \u00d6rne\u011fin, Heinrich von Treitschke (1834-1896) ve Eugen D\u00fchring (1833-1923) bunlar aras\u0131ndayd\u0131. Tarih\u00e7i Treitschke, Yahudilerin \u201cAlmanlar\u0131n ve Almanya\u2019n\u0131n \u015fanss\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d oldu\u011funu yaz\u0131yordu (bkz. Can\u015fen, s.83-85). \u201cOrta \u00c7a\u011fda Yahudileri kuyular\u0131 zehirlemekle su\u00e7layan ak\u0131l d\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, bu iftiralar, \u015fimdi ve yaz\u0131n alan\u0131nda do\u011fru hale gelmi\u015ftir.\u201d<\/p>\n

\u201cYahudi Sorunu\u201d konulu kitaplar \u00e7\u0131karan (Die Judenfrage als Frage der Rassensch<\/em>\u00e4dlichkeit f\u00fcr Existenz, Sitte und Kultur der V\u00f6lker mit einer weltgeschichtlichen Antwort, <\/em>1880; Die Judenfrage als Rassen, Sitten und Kulturfrage<\/em>, 1881) akademisyen D\u00fchring, Engels taraf\u0131ndan \u201cAnti-D\u00fchring\u201d adl\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda etrafl\u0131ca ele\u015ftirilmi\u015fti (Friedrich Engels, Anti-D\u00fchring<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2003).<\/p>\n

[41]<\/a> Arendt, 1996, s.86-87.<\/p>\n

[42]<\/a> Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau\u2019nun (1816-1882), insan \u0131rklar\u0131 \u00fczerine \u00f6nemli bir kitab\u0131 vard\u0131r (\u0130nsan Irklar\u0131n\u0131n E\u015fitsizli\u011fi \u00dczerine Bir Deneme<\/em>, 1853). Ancak \u0131rklar\u0131n \u201cke\u015ffi\u201d, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131lda bilimsel alanda<\/strong> yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130sve\u00e7li do\u011fabilimci Carl von Linne (1707\/-1778) 1735\u2019te yay\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Do\u011fa Sistemi<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda insan \u0131rklar\u0131n\u0131 onlara \u00f6zellikler de atfederek tan\u0131mlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ari \u0131rk\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcn g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

[43]<\/a> Besteci Richard Wagner (1813-1883), sosyalist hareketin bir eylemcisi olarak siyasal roller \u00fcstlenmi\u015f, 1848 Devrimine aktif olarak kat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, 1849 Nisan\u0131nda Dresden\u2019deki ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131kla sonu\u00e7lanacak olan ayaklanmada Rus anar\u015fist Bakunin\u2019le birlikte silahl\u0131 \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalara girmi\u015f, sonra da \u00fclke d\u0131\u015f\u0131na ka\u00e7mak zorunda kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00c7evresindeki devrimcilerden ve ilerici ayd\u0131nlardan edindiklerini aray\u0131\u015flar\u0131nda de\u011ferlendirmi\u015f, \u00f6rne\u011fin, (baz\u0131 \u015fiirlerini besteledi\u011fi ) Heine\u2019den etkilenmesiyle operaya bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Devrimcili\u011fi, m\u00fczikte de devrimci aray\u0131\u015flarla ve yarat\u0131larla birle\u015fmi\u015f ve halka seslenen, kahramanl\u0131k temal\u0131 ve efsaneleri konu alan yenilik\u00e7i operalar yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hayat\u0131n\u0131n son d\u00f6nemlerini Bavyera kral\u0131n\u0131n saray\u0131nda ge\u00e7irmi\u015f, devrimci fikirlerinden uzakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hitler d\u00f6neminde, Alman tarihine yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu g\u00f6ndermeler y\u00fcz\u00fcnden ba\u015f tac\u0131 edilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

[44]<\/a> Bir \u0130ngiliz soylusu olan Houston Stewart Chamberlain Avusturya \u0130mparatoru II. Wilhelm\u2019in saray\u0131na yerle\u015fmi\u015f, ona dan\u0131\u015fman ve R. Wagner\u2019e damat olmu\u015ftu. \u201c19. Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n Temelleri\u201d adl\u0131 \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 kuramsalla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir eseri olan ve Alman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn hayat\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ok etkileyen bu \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 \u0130ngiliz ayd\u0131n\u0131 1923\u2019te tan\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmak \u00fczere yan\u0131na getirilen Hitler\u2019e hayran olacak ve ona yol g\u00f6stermek isteyecektir. Hitler, siyaset felsefesinin \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerinin \u201cbilimsel\u201d temelleri konusunda Chamberlain\u2019den yararland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bir\u00e7ok kez belirtmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

[45]<\/a> H. Heine\u2019nin amcas\u0131 Almanya\u2019n\u0131n en zengin insanlar\u0131ndan biri olan banker Salomon Heine 1844\u2019te \u00f6ld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc zaman vatanda\u015f de\u011fildi. Bu y\u00fczden kent senatosu hayat\u0131 boyunca ona itibarl\u0131 bir insana davranaca\u011f\u0131 gibi davranamam\u0131\u015f, protokollerde yer verememi\u015f, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc ba\u011f\u0131\u015flar i\u00e7in bir te\u015fekk\u00fcr bile edememi\u015fti. Oysa S. Heine Hamburg kentinin kriz d\u00f6nemlerinde ayakta kalmas\u0131nda ve geli\u015fmesinde \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli roller oynam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. O derecede sayg\u0131nd\u0131 ki, cenazesinde on binlerce insan vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

[46]<\/a> \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u201cYahudinin Zoru \u201c adl\u0131 masaldaki Yahudi h\u0131rs\u0131zd\u0131 ve as\u0131larak idam ediliyordu (Grimm Masallar\u0131<\/em>, Cilt 1, s. 323 vd.). \u00d6nemli olan, su\u00e7lama s\u00fcrecinin nesnel bir anlat\u0131m\u0131 olmamas\u0131 ve Yahudilerin k\u00f6t\u00fclenmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131, a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lanmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

[47]<\/a> Kleines Jahrbuch des N\u00fctzlichen und Angenehmen f\u00fcr Israel<\/em>, 1847; akt. Arendt,1996, s.67.<\/p>\n

[48]<\/a> Olumsuz \u00f6zellikleriyle kendisinden \u00e7ok s\u00f6z edilen IV. Friedrich Wilhelm (1795-1861), iyi e\u011fitim g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z ve inisiyatifsiz bir h\u00fck\u00fcmdard\u0131. \u00c7ok ve bo\u015f konu\u015fan bir insan olarak alay konusu bile oldu. Hi\u00e7 \u00e7ocu\u011fu olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Alkolik oldu\u011fu herkesin dilindeydi.<\/p>\n

[49]<\/a> Tageb\u00fccher<\/em>, II, 113, Leipzig 1861; akt. Arendt, 1996, s.70.<\/p>\n

[50]<\/a> Hitler d\u00f6neminde hayatta kalmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Mischling<\/em>lerden \u00f6zel g\u00f6revli birlikler olu\u015fturulmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

[51]<\/a> Bu kay\u0131tlar sonradan Hitler d\u00f6neminde en iyi bir \u015fekilde de\u011ferlendirilecek, bu konuda \u00fcretilen \u201c\u00f6zel\u201d politikalar\u0131n temeli olacaklard\u0131. Ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Victor Klemperer, LTI \/ Lingua Tertii Imperii – Die Sprache des Dritten Reiches<\/em>, Reclam Verlag, Leipzig 1991, s.203-211 ve 36-38.<\/p>\n

Limpieza de la sangre<\/em> kural\u0131, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131lda \u0130spanya\u2019da Cordoba Ba\u015fpiskoposlu\u011funun, isterse katedralde en y\u00fcksek g\u00f6revdeki din adam\u0131 olsun herkesin, Yahudi k\u00f6kenli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, atalar\u0131n\u0131n aras\u0131nda da Yahudi bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ispatlamas\u0131n\u0131<\/strong> \u015fart ko\u015fmas\u0131yla ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bir\u00e7ok yerde uygulanacak ve sonradan Papal\u0131k taraf\u0131ndan onaylacak olan kural, uygulanmayan yerlerde de bilindi.<\/p>\n

[52]<\/a> Breuer, s.189.<\/p>\n

[53]<\/a> \u201eOtokratik Prusya devleti hayran\u0131 Hegel\u201d (Lenin).<\/p>\n

[54]<\/a> \u201cYahudilerin oldu\u011fu her yer geli\u015fmi\u015ftir. \u0130yi ile k\u00f6t\u00fcy\u00fc onlardan daha iyi ay\u0131ran, onlardan daha iyi yorum yapabilen yoktur. Sade ve a\u00e7\u0131k yazmay\u0131 bize onlar \u00f6\u011fretti.\u201d (Die fr\u00f6hliche Wissenschaft \/ G\u00fcler Y\u00fczl\u00fc Bilim,<\/em> 1882) sat\u0131rlar\u0131, \u201cbu kadar Alman yan\u0131nda bir Yahudi kazan\u00e7t\u0131r\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fc Nietzsche\u2019nindir. Sald\u0131r\u0131lara u\u011frayan Yahudi Heine\u2019ye sahip \u00e7\u0131kan Nietzsche onu \u201cAlman dilinin en b\u00fcy\u00fck ustalar\u0131ndan biri\u201d ilan ediyor ve ondan \u00e7ok yararland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrekli tekrarl\u0131yor. Ayr\u0131ca Nietzsche\u2019nin Wagner kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n Wagner\u2019in Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yapmas\u0131 \u00fczerine ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcren kaynaklar bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"[55]<\/a> Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche\u2019nin (1844-1900) bir Alman \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla evli k\u0131zkarde\u015fi, \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra Nietzsche\u2019nin d\u00fczensiz ve tamamlanmam\u0131\u015f notlar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fiklikler ve eklemeler de yaparak bu ama\u00e7la yay\u0131mlatt\u0131 ve Nietzsche\u2019yi Alman \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na alet etti. Sonralar\u0131 daha da \u00f6nem kazanan ve kullan\u0131lan bu tahrifatla ba\u015fka \u00e7arp\u0131tma ve y\u00f6nlendirmeler, 1946\u2019da ba\u015flat\u0131larak y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarla ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131 ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr\u00fcn \u201caklanmas\u0131\u201d sa\u011fland\u0131. Ancak bunlar Nietzsche\u2019nin Hitler\u2019e ve Nazizme \u00f6nc\u00fcll\u00fck etti\u011fi yollu yarg\u0131lar\u0131n ve \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n ortadan kalkmas\u0131n\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 sa\u011flayamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nietzsche, g\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc olarak kat\u0131lmak istedi\u011fi 1870 sava\u015f\u0131n\u0131n ertesinde g\u00f6zlemledi\u011fi militarist-sald\u0131rgan e\u011filimlerden adeta fa\u015fizmin \u00e7\u0131kaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f\u00e7esine alayc\u0131 ifadelerle d\u00f6nemin \u00f6zelliklerine kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu. (\u201cNietzsche\u2019nin yanl\u0131\u015f anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 onun su\u00e7u de\u011fil, bahts\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Nitekim Fransa\u2019da da i\u015fler b\u00f6yle olmu\u015ftu… Her iki d\u00fcnya sava\u015f\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda herkes Nietzsche d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 kesilmi\u015f; sava\u015flar bitince, ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar Nietzsche\u2019yi anlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.\u201d Hikmet G\u00f6kalp, \u201cPostmodern \u00c7a\u011fda Ahlaksal \u0130li\u015fkiler \u00dczerine\u201d, Teori<\/em>, Say\u0131 95, Aral\u0131k 1997, s.57)<\/p>\n

[56]<\/a> Halk s\u00f6ylemleri derlemecisi \u015fair ve yazar Friedrich Stoltze\u2019nin (1816-1891) yerel a\u011f\u0131zla s\u00f6yledi\u011fi dize \u201cD\u0131\u015far\u0131dan gelen herkes yabanc\u0131d\u0131r\u201d (\u201cE Fremder is immer von ausserhalb\u201d) \u015feklindeydi (Johannes Proel\u00df \/ G\u00fcnther Vogt, Friedrich Stoltze \u2013 Ein B\u00fcrger von Frankfurt<\/em>, Societ\u00e4ts-Verlag, Frankfurt\/M, 1978).<\/p>\n

[57]<\/a> Johann Rupert (Robert) Hammerling (1830-1889), Hitler\u2019in ailesiyle akrabal\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011fu san\u0131lan yazar (geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Aytun\u00e7 Alt\u0131ndal, Bilinmeyen Hitler<\/em>, Yeni Avrasya Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2002, s.61-64).<\/p>\n

[58]<\/a> \u201cB\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devrimi – 3 \/ \u2018Almanya\u2019daki Frans\u0131z Devrimi\u2019\u201d, Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em>, say\u0131: 91, Eyl\u00fcl 2011, s.47.<\/p>\n

[59]<\/a> Bernal, s.301.<\/p>\n

[60]<\/a> Frans\u0131z Devriminden ka\u00e7mak ve Almanya\u2019ya g\u00f6\u00e7mek zorunda kalan Cermen-soylu aristokratlara b\u00f6yle deniyordu. Bu g\u00f6\u00e7menler, Devrimin, Almanya\u2019da Fransa d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile ba\u011f\u0131n\u0131, ili\u015fkisini ilk kuranlar oldular. Arendt, Fransa\u2019dan Almanya\u2019ya giden Franklar\u0131n, ayn\u0131 zamanda, Almanya\u2019daki \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n da ilk ba\u015flat\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131 oldu\u011funu ima etmektedir (1998, s.78). Bu konuda geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. \u201cB\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devrimi – 1\u201d, Bilim ve Gelecek<\/em>, say\u0131: 89, Temmuz 2011, s.27-31.<\/p>\n

[61]<\/a> Bu sorun, B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devriminden ba\u015flayarak b\u00fct\u00fcn y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131 kapsayan bir sorun olmu\u015ftu. \u0130ki kom\u015fu \u00fclke Ren b\u00f6lgesi i\u00e7in hep \u00e7at\u0131\u015ft\u0131lar. Ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n bilgisi i\u00e7in bkz. ayn\u0131 yerde<\/em>, s.19 vd.<\/p>\n

[62]<\/a> Tendence ak\u0131m\u0131, Georg Herwegh (1817-1875), Hoffmann von Fallersleben (1798-1874) ile \u015fair ve tiyatrocu Franz Dingelstedt\u2019in (1814-1881) ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekti\u011fi bir yaz\u0131n grubuydu. \u00d6nceleri etkin oldularsa da sonra \u00f6nem verilmeyen adlara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcler.<\/p>\n

[63]<\/a> Emile Edouard Charles Antoine Zola (1840-1902) Frans\u0131z toplumunu sarsan romanlar yazd\u0131. D\u00fcnya \u00e7ap\u0131nda tan\u0131nd\u0131. Tarihe \u201cDreyfus Davas\u0131\u201d olarak ge\u00e7en olayda haks\u0131z olarak su\u00e7lanan Yahudi subay yan\u0131nda ve onu savunarak taraf oldu (bu konuda bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Emile Zola, Dreyfus Olay\u0131 \/ Adalet \u0130\u00e7in Bir Sava\u015f\u0131n \u00d6yk\u00fcs\u00fc<\/em>, Yal\u00e7\u0131n Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1998). Dreyfus sonralar\u0131 akland\u0131 ama Zola Fransa\u2019dan ka\u00e7mak zorunda kald\u0131, bir s\u00fcre \u0130ngiltere\u2019de ya\u015fad\u0131.<\/p>\n

[64]<\/a> Bernal, s.301.<\/p>\n

[65]<\/a> James, s.37.<\/p>\n

[66]<\/a> James, s.41.<\/p>\n

[67]<\/a> Preussichen Jahrb\u00fccher, 1858; akt. James, s.39.<\/p>\n

[68]<\/a> H. Dippel, Germany and the American Revolution \/ 1770-1800<\/em>, Chapel Hill, 1977, s.311; akt. James, 35.<\/p>\n

[69]<\/a> James, s.41.<\/p>\n

[70]<\/a> Brecht\u2019in 1942 y\u0131l\u0131nda yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cBir Alman Anas\u0131n\u0131n A\u011f\u0131t\u0131\u201d adl\u0131 bu \u00f6nemli \u015fiiri T\u00fcrk\u00e7eye \u00e7evirenin kim oldu\u011funu \u00f6\u011frenemedik. Almancas\u0131 \u015f\u00f6yle:<\/p>\n

Mein Sohn, ich h\u00f6rte dich reden
\nVon einem Heldengeschlecht.
\nWu\u00dfte nicht, ahnte nicht, sah nicht:
\nDu warst ihr Folterknecht.<\/em><\/p>\n

(http:\/\/www.joergalbrecht.de\/es\/deutschedichter.de\/werk.asp?ID=294)<\/strong><\/p>\n

[71]<\/a> Rathmann, s.61<\/p>\n

[72]<\/a> Arendt, 1998, s.188-99.<\/p>\n

[73]<\/a> \u201c\u00d6ns\u00f6z\u201d, K. Marx, Fransa\u2019da \u0130\u00e7 Sava\u015f<\/em>, K\u00f6z Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1970, s.8.<\/p>\n

[74]<\/a> Yahudilere y\u00f6nelik 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l uygulamalar\u0131 konusunda geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitlers willige Vollstrecker \/ Ganz gew\u00f6hnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust<\/em>, Siedler, Berlin 1998.<\/p>\n

[75]<\/a> Denemeler ve Bir Alman Dosta Mektuplar<\/em>, \u00c7an Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1965, s.122.<\/p>\n

[76]<\/a> Deutschlands Anspr\u00fcche an das t\u00fcrkische Erbe<\/em> (Almanya\u2019n\u0131n T\u00fcrk Miras\u0131 \u00dczerindeki Haklar\u0131), M\u00fcnchen 1896, s.11; akt. Rathmann, s.55.<\/p>\n

[77]<\/a> Georg Friedrich List (1789-1846), ulusal sanayinin geli\u015fmesi i\u00e7in g\u00fcmr\u00fck duvarlar\u0131n\u0131n koruyuculu\u011funu gerekli g\u00f6ren Alman iktisat\u00e7\u0131. Siyasal olarak ilhak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n da savunucusuydu. G\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri bir d\u00f6nemi etkiledi ve uygulamaya kondu. Alman emperyalizminin \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fc, \u201cilk Alman emperyalisti\u201d ve Alman burjuvazisinin teorisyeni List, Marx\u2019a g\u00f6re, \u201ckol eme\u011fi yerine makineleri, ataerkil sanayi yerine modern sanayiyi yerle\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in, \u2026 burjuvazinin, \u00f6zellikle b\u00fcy\u00fck sanayici kapitalistlerin egemenli\u011fini geli\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in\u201d korumac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n<\/strong> s\u00f6zc\u00fcs\u00fc olmu\u015ftu. Gene iktisat\u00e7\u0131 olan Leipzig \u00dcniversitesinden Wilhelm Roscher (1817-1894), Tarihsel Okul\u2019un kurucular\u0131ndand\u0131. Osmanl\u0131 devleti par\u00e7aland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ondan \u00f6nemli bir pay kapmak gerekti\u011finin ate\u015fli ve etkin bir savunucusu olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

[78]<\/a> Paul Anton de Lagarde (1827-1891), oryantalist olmas\u0131 yan\u0131nda k\u00fclt\u00fcr felsefecisiydi. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n yay\u0131lma planlar\u0131na antisemitist bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n hakim olmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan en etkili akademisyenlerden biridir. D\u00f6neminde \u201culusal H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k\u201d\u0131n, \u201culusal-dini fundamentalizm\u201din de en \u00f6nemli savunucusuydu (Benedict Anderson, \u00dc\u00e7 Bayrak Alt\u0131nda \/ Anar\u015fizm ve S\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik Kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 Tahayy\u00fcl<\/em>, Metis Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2007, s.250-51).<\/p>\n

[79]<\/a> Cermenizmin savunucusu olmasa da Almanya\u2019ya g\u00f6\u00e7en Polonyal\u0131lar\u0131n ate\u015fli d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in Pencermen Birli\u011fe kat\u0131lan \u201ca\u00e7\u0131k fikirli\u201d d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr Max Weber (1864-1920), \u201cliberal emperyalizm\u201d tezlerine kaynakl\u0131k eden g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle tart\u0131\u015fmalar yaratt\u0131 (1895). D\u00fcnyevi olman\u0131n \u00f6nemini ortaya \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kapitalizmin Protestanl\u0131k \u015fartlar\u0131nda g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi geli\u015fmeyi kan\u0131t g\u00f6stererek Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n kapitalizme ge\u00e7i\u015fin \u015fart\u0131 oldu\u011funu savlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 Protestan Ahlak\u0131 ve Kapitalizmin Ruhu<\/em> (1904-1905) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131yla \u00fcnlendi. Kast\u0131, esas olarak, kazan\u00e7 ve m\u00fclkiyetin Katolik ahlak\u0131nda me\u015fru say\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan hareketle, Katolisizmin kapitalizmin geli\u015fmesini \u00f6nledi\u011fi, Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ise bu zorlukla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131yd\u0131. Yani Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 insan (ve Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ahlak) ile kapitalizm aras\u0131nda neden-sonu\u00e7 ili\u015fkisi vard\u0131. \u00d6nemi, bug\u00fcn, siyaset bilimciler aras\u0131nda bile, modernlik, modernli\u011fin siyasal g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc olan \u201cdemokrasi\u201d ve \u00e7o\u011fulculuk ile Protestanl\u0131k, hatta yaln\u0131z Protestanl\u0131k da de\u011fil, (k\u00fcresel olarak de\u011ferlendirme yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda) H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k aras\u0131nda ba\u011flar oldu\u011fu savlar\u0131na temel olu\u015fturmas\u0131d\u0131r. Buna g\u00f6re, Katolikler ya tam geli\u015fmemi\u015flerdir ya da s\u00f6m\u00fcrge olmu\u015flard\u0131r (H\u0131ristiyan olmayan d\u00fcnya ile ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde), \u201cdemokrasi\u201dyi de ya\u015fatamam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Geli\u015fmi\u015f d\u00fcnya (ve \u201cdemokrasi d\u00fcnyas\u0131\u201d), H\u0131ristiyan d\u00fcnyad\u0131r, H\u0131ristiyan d\u00fcnyada da Protestan \u00fclkelerdir.<\/p>\n

[80]<\/a> Bismarck 1874\u2019te, bu g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ordunun ortaya \u00e7\u0131kabilmesi i\u00e7in yedi y\u0131ll\u0131k zorunlu askerlik sistemini getirmi\u015fti. Bu karar\u0131n al\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra silahlanmaya ayr\u0131lan pay her y\u0131l art\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

[81]<\/a> Baz\u0131 kaynaklarda Alman deniz sava\u015f g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0130ngiltere\u2019den daha \u00fcst\u00fcn hale getirildi\u011fi yaz\u0131l\u0131ysa da dretnotlar\u0131n ve kruvaz\u00f6rlerin kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda sonucun b\u00f6yle olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Sava\u015f gemilerinin adlar\u0131yla say\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 liste i\u00e7in bkz. Robert K. Massie, Dretnot \/ \u0130ngiltere, Almanya ve Yakla\u015fan Sava\u015f\u0131n Ayak Sesleri<\/em>, Sabah Kitaplar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1995, s.731-34.<\/p>\n

[82]<\/a> B\u00f6yle olmakla birlikte Alman yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u201c\u0130ngiltere gibi denizlerde hakimiyet kurma yolu\u201d ile \u201cRusya gibi karada geni\u015fleme ve ilerleme yolu\u201d aras\u0131ndaki se\u00e7imini karadan yana yapt\u0131. Almanya ger\u00e7ek\u00e7iydi elbette, se\u00e7im do\u011fruydu; birincisi, Almanya i\u00e7in kara tarih boyunca her zaman denize \u00fcst\u00fcnd\u00fc, ikincisi, Almanya denizcilik alan\u0131nda \u0130ngiltere, \u0130spanya gibi birikim ve tecr\u00fcbeye sahip de\u011fildi, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n Atlantik k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kullanma olana\u011f\u0131 yoktu, k\u0131ta Avrupa\u2019s\u0131n\u0131n ortas\u0131nda bulunuyordu (ama ayn\u0131 zamanda, bu sayede, hem do\u011fu Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n geni\u015f alanlar\u0131n\u0131 elinde tutabilme kolayl\u0131\u011f\u0131na sahipti ve hem de bu alanlardan ve g\u00fcneyden ilerleyebilmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fc), d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n denizlerde ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131na inananlar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131 \u00e7ok azd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[83]<\/a> Pancermenizmin yay\u0131n organlar\u0131ndan olan Altdeutscher Bl\u00e4tter<\/em> adl\u0131 gazetede ilk kez 1894 y\u0131l\u0131nda Ernst Hasse (1846-1908) taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131lan bu terim, Alman emperyalizminin en temel slogan\u0131 olacakt\u0131. Hasse, Almanya\u2019da Osmanl\u0131 devletinin par\u00e7alanmas\u0131 ve payla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 planlar\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlayand\u0131r. Deutsche Weltpolitik<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131 (M\u00fcnchen 1897), Almanya\u2019n\u0131n emperyalist yay\u0131lma program\u0131<\/strong> gibidir. Uygar \u00fclkeler (Kulturstaaten) s\u00f6m\u00fcrge imparatorluklar\u0131 kurmu\u015flard\u0131r, Almanya da kuracakt\u0131r ve T\u00fcrkiye ile \u00c7in gibi \u00fclkeler Alman sanayisinin \u00fcr\u00fcnleri i\u00e7in pazar olacaklard\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Drang nach Ostern<\/strong>in do\u011fmas\u0131 ve hayata ge\u00e7mesi, yeni b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00fc\u00e7 Almanya\u2019n\u0131n, karayollar\u0131n\u0131 elinde tutan Avusturya ile ittifak yapmas\u0131 sonucu olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

[84]<\/a> Anderson, s.91-92.<\/p>\n

Anla\u015f\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 gibi bu adalar, Almanya i\u00e7in ula\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 ve elde tutulmas\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f olacak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde uzak bir b\u00f6lgedeydi, Pasifik Okyanusu\u2019ndayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[85]<\/a> G.V. Plehanov, Tarihte Bireyin Rol\u00fc<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1982, s.41.<\/p>\n

[86]<\/a> Taner Timur, Osmanl\u0131 \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 \/ \u0130lkel Feodalizmden Yar\u0131 S\u00f6m\u00fcrge Ekonomisine<\/em>, \u0130mge Kitabevi, Ankara 1998, s.330-331.<\/p>\n

[87]<\/a> Davies, s.808.<\/p>\n

[88]<\/a> Projelerin istenildi\u011fi gibi y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclememesine ra\u011fmen Almanya\u2019n\u0131n okyanuslar \u00f6tesindeki \u201cs\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131\u201dn\u0131, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n 1880\u2019lerde \u201cdaha \u00f6nceki politikalar\u0131n\u0131 tersine \u00e7evirip Avrupa d\u0131\u015f\u0131 emperyal maceralar\u201da giri\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011funu belirlemi\u015f olanlar da bulunmaktad\u0131r (Anderson, s.91), ancak bu de\u011ferlendirmeler, genel durumun ve s\u00fcrecin kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011fildir ve b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla Bismarck\u2019a ra\u011fmen<\/strong> yap\u0131labilmi\u015f olan \u015feylerdir.<\/p>\n

[89]<\/a> Bu olgu, ayn\u0131 zamanda Avusturya-Macaristan \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun da eseriydi. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc imparatorlu\u011fun en \u00f6nemli \u201cya\u015fama alan\u0131\u201d g\u00fcneydo\u011fu Avrupa ve Balkanlard\u0131. B\u00f6lgeye ilgi siyasetle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 de\u011fildi. Avusturya Jeoloji Kurumunun 1851\u2019den ba\u015flayarak yay\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 periyodikin bile \u00f6zel ilgi alan\u0131 bu co\u011frafyayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[90]<\/a> Lee, s. 154 ve 156-157; ayr\u0131ca geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Uluslararas\u0131 \u0130li\u015fkiler Tarihi \/ Diplomas\u0131 Tarihi<\/em>, cilt 2, May Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1978, s.159.<\/p>\n

[91]<\/a> Bismarck ve sonras\u0131ndaki d\u00f6nemde Almanya\u2019n\u0131n II. Abd\u00fclh\u00fcmid\u2019le ili\u015fkileri konusunda geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Alp Hamuro\u011flu, \u201cHalife II. Abd\u00fclhamit\u2019in Panislamizmi ve Bat\u0131\u201d, Bilim ve \u00dctopya<\/em>, Say\u0131: 233, Kas\u0131m 2013, s.26-40.<\/p>\n

[92]<\/a> \u201cPomeranyal\u0131 asker\u201dle, hayat\u0131na hi\u00e7 de\u011fer verilmeyecek \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde niteliksiz, donan\u0131ms\u0131z ve e\u011fitimsiz asker kastedilmektedir. Pomeranya ise Polonya\u2019n\u0131n kuzeybat\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

[93]<\/a> Timur, s.327.<\/p>\n

[94]<\/a> Davies, s.918.<\/p>\n

[95]<\/a> \u201c1888 \u0130ngilizce Bas\u0131m\u0131na \u00d6ns\u00f6z\u201d, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Kom\u00fcnist Partisi Manifestosu<\/em>, Ayd\u0131nl\u0131k Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1979, s.25.<\/p>\n

[96]<\/a> Otto von Bismarck, Gedanken und Erinnerungen<\/em>.<\/p>\n

[97]<\/a> Davies, s.888.<\/p>\n

[98]<\/a> \u201cPsychopathology and Politics\u201d, The Political Writing of Harold D. Lasswell<\/em>, Free Press, Glencoe – Illinois 1951, s.173; akt. Edward McNall Burns, \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f Siyasal D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler \/ 1850-1950<\/em>, Birey ve Toplum Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1984, s.379.<\/p>\n

[99]<\/a> Almanya\u2019da 721 cadde onun ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yor. Ayr\u0131ca, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n 97 heykeli (Hamburg\u2019da olan\u0131 35 metre y\u00fcksekli\u011finde), 146 kulesi, Gelsenkirchen\u2019de de onun ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan bir mahalle bulunuyor. B\u00fct\u00fcn d\u00fcnyada 10 bin yer ise Bismarck\u2019la ili\u015fkiliymi\u015f (Handelsblatt<\/em>, 13 \u015eubat 2015; akt. Halit \u00c7elikbudak, \u201cOtto von Bismarck\u201d, www.medyalens.com, May\u0131s 2015).<\/p>\n

[100]<\/a> Boerlere kar\u015f\u0131 G\u00fcney Afrika\u2019da y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen \u0130ngiliz stratejisini tasarlayan\u0131n asl\u0131nda kendisi oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemi\u015fti. Ancak bu, \u0130ngiltere a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan kabul edilemez bir uluslararas\u0131 sorun yarat\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

[101]<\/a> Almanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131-Devrim<\/em>, s.36.<\/p>\n

[102]<\/a> Almanya\u2019da Burjuva Demokratik Devrim<\/em>, s.363.<\/p>\n

[103]<\/a> Fulbrook, s.126.<\/p>\n

[104]<\/a> Lee, s.139.<\/p>\n

[105]<\/a> Devrimci gazete der Volksstaat<\/em>\u2019\u0131n yay\u0131n y\u00f6netmeni Karl Hirsch (1841-1900), i\u015f\u00e7i \u00f6nderleri August Vogt (1812-1893), Friedrich Theodor Cuno (1846-1934), Siegfried Meyer (1840-1872), anar\u015fist Johann Most (1846-1906), Lasalc\u0131 Karl Julius Vahlteich (1839-1915) bunlar aras\u0131ndayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[106]<\/a> Bu birlik, ayn\u0131 zamanda Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 monar\u015filerin dayan\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n tecrit edilmesi ve Frans\u0131z devrimcili\u011finin, cumhuriyet\u00e7ili\u011finin olumsuzlanmas\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131ndan da anlaml\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

[107]<\/a> Bu ilk sosyalist parti, siyasal \u00e7izgisine \u201csosyal demokrasi\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131 koymu\u015ftu (Eisenach Kongresi, 1869). Bu kavram, \u201c1880\u2019lere kadar, bazen devrimci bazen reformcu i\u00e7eriklerle y\u00fcklenmi\u015f bir belirsizlik i\u00e7inde kullan\u0131\u201dlacakt\u0131. Ancak \u201c1880\u2019lerin ba\u015flar\u0131ndan Birinci D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131na kadar, esas olarak Marksizmin etkisiyle proleter-devrimci anlam\u0131nda kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u201d. \u201cBu d\u00f6nemin sonunda ise modern anlam\u0131n\u0131 kazanarak g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar geldi.\u201d (Atakan Hatipo\u011flu, CHP\u2019nin \u0130deolojik D\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fc \/ Kemalizmden Sosyal Demokrasiye<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2012, s.40)<\/p>\n

[108]<\/a> Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland\u2019\u0131n k\u0131salt\u0131lm\u0131\u015f\u0131d\u0131r. 1869\u2019da Bilimsel Sosyalizmi ilke edinen ilk parti olarak kurulmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131nda ge\u00e7irdi\u011fi de\u011fi\u015fimle \u201csosyaldemokrasi\u201dye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f yapt\u0131.<\/p>\n

[109]<\/a> SPD, 1878\u2019de 478 bin, 1881\u2019de 310 bin, 1884\u2019te 550 bin, 1887\u2019de 763 bin, 1890\u2019da 1.477 bin oy alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu geli\u015fmede, Erfurt\u2019ta yap\u0131lan kongrenin partiyi bask\u0131 \u015fartlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 ideolojik olarak g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmi\u015f ve bilemi\u015f olmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir pay\u0131 bulunmaktad\u0131r. Ancak proletaryan\u0131n geli\u015fmi\u015fli\u011fi belirleyicidir. \u201c1985\u2019te 269 bin i\u015f\u00e7iye sahip olan Almanya\u2019da 1909\u2019a gelindi\u011finde i\u015f\u00e7i say\u0131s\u0131 3 milyona \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131.\u201d (Haluk \u00d6zdalga, \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f Sosyal Demokrasinin Olu\u015fumu<\/em>, Hil Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1984, s.13 ve 45; akt. Hatipo\u011flu, s.45)<\/p>\n

[110]<\/a> Hatipo\u011flu, s.40.<\/p>\n

[111]<\/a> Ayn\u0131 yerde<\/em>, s.29-32.<\/p>\n

[112]<\/a> Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Kom\u00fcnist Partisi Manifestosu<\/em>, Ayd\u0131nl\u0131k Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1979, s.95.<\/p>\n

[113]<\/a> Max Beer, Sosyalizmin ve Sosyal M\u00fccadelelerin Tarihi<\/em>, D\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc ve Be\u015finci Kitap, \u0130stanbul 1965, s.479.<\/p>\n

[114]<\/a> Alman sosyalizm tarihinde etkisi ve \u00f6nemi olan bu devlet\u00e7i sosyalizm ak\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in bkz. Karl Marx, Gotha Program\u0131n\u0131n Ele\u015ftirisi<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1972.<\/p>\n

[115]<\/a> Ortayl\u0131, 1983, s.87.<\/p>\n

[116]<\/a> Jeremy Sarkin, Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st<\/sup> Century: The Socio-Legal Contex of Claim under International Law by the Herero agains Germany for Genocide in Namibia \/ 1904-1908<\/em>, Praeger, Westport 2009, s.5-6; akt. Ulu\u00e7 G\u00fcrkan, Ermeni Sorunu\u2019nu Anlamak \/ \u00d6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131 A\u015fmak ve Nefretten Ar\u0131nmak<\/em>, Destek Yay\u0131nevi, \u0130stanbul 2011, s.231. Bu konuda geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Sefa M. Y\u00fcr\u00fckel, Soyk\u0131r\u0131mlar Tarihi I \/ Bat\u0131n\u0131n \u0130nsanl\u0131k Su\u00e7lar\u0131<\/em>, Near East Publishing, Nicosia 2005, s.96-127.<\/p>\n

Se\u00e7ilmi\u015f Kaynaklar<\/strong><\/p>\n

– H. G. Adler, Die Juden in Deutschland \/ Von der Aufkl\u00e4rung bis zur Nationalsozialismus<\/em>, M\u00fcnchen 1987.<\/p>\n

– Hannah Arendt, Totalitarizmin Kaynaklar\u0131 – 1 \/ Antisemitizm, Se\u00e7me Eserler 3<\/em>, \u0130leti\u015fim Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1996.<\/p>\n

– Hannah Arendt, Totalitarizmin Kaynaklar\u0131 – 2 \/ Emperyalizm, Se\u00e7me Eserler 4<\/em>, \u0130leti\u015fim Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1998.<\/p>\n

– G\u00fcrsel Ayta\u00e7, Yeni Alman Edebiyat\u0131 Tarihi<\/em>, G\u00fcndo\u011fan Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1992.<\/p>\n

– Kemal Ayta\u00e7, Avrupa E\u011fitim Tarihi<\/em>, M. \u00dc. \u0130lahiyat Fak\u00fcltesi Vakf\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1992.<\/p>\n

– Max Beer, Sosyalizmin ve Sosyal M\u00fccadelelerin Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130stanbul 1965.<\/p>\n

– Isaiah Berlin, Romantikli\u011fin K\u00f6kleri<\/em>, YKY \/ Cogito, \u0130stanbul 2004.<\/p>\n

– Martin Bernal, Kara Atena – Eski Yunanistan Uydurmacas\u0131 Nas\u0131l \u0130mal edildi? \/ 1785-1985<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1998.<\/p>\n

– H. Boockmann, H. Schilling, H. Schulze, M. St\u00fcrmer, Mitten in Europa \u2013 Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Sammlung Siedler, Berlin 1992.<\/p>\n

– Ulrich Br\u00f6ckling, Disiplin \/ Askeri \u0130taat \u00dcretiminin Sosyolojisi ve Tarihi<\/em>, Ayr\u0131nt\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2001.<\/p>\n

– Norman Davies, Avrupa Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130mge Kitabevi, Ankara 2006.<\/p>\n

– Yavuz Dedegil, \u201cG\u00fcncel T\u00fcrk K\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc ve Alman-Bat\u0131 K\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcyle Kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma\u201d, yay\u0131mlanmam\u0131\u015f \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, 2002, 112 sayfa.<\/p>\n

– R. L. M. Derolez, G\u00f6tter und Mythen der Germanen<\/em>, Verlag F. Englisch, Wiesbaden 1976.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Burjuva Demokratik Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1975.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131-Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1992.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach ve Klasik Alman Felsefesinin Sonu<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1979.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Tarihte Zorun Rol\u00fc – Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Kan ve Zul\u00fcm Politikas\u0131 \u00dczerine Bir \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1979.<\/p>\n

– Mary Fulbrook, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n K\u0131sa Tarihi<\/em>, Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i \u00dcniversitesi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2014.<\/p>\n

– Lothar Gall, Bismarck \/ Der weisse Revolution\u00e4r<\/em>, Propyl\u00e4en, Frankfurt\/M-Berlin-Wien 1980.<\/p>\n

– \u201cDie Geschichte der Deutschen – Von den Germanen bis zum Mauerfall\u201d, Stern<\/em>, Nr. 45-52, 2.11.2006 \u2013 11.11.2006.<\/p>\n

– Geschichte des deutschen Parlamentarismus<\/em>, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn 1999.<\/p>\n

– Carlo Ginzburg, \u201cCermen Mitolojisi ve Nazizm\u201d, Efsaneler Amblemler \u0130zler \/ Morfoloji ve Tarih<\/em>, K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2007, s. 253-288.<\/p>\n

– Graudenz\/Schindler, Die deutschen Kolonien \/ 100 Jahre Geschichte in Wort, Bild und Karte<\/em>, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, M\u00fcnchen 1985.<\/p>\n

– Ricarda Huch, Alman Romantizmi<\/em>, Do\u011fu Bat\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2005.<\/p>\n

– Harold James, Deutsche Identit\u00e4t, 1770-1990<\/em>, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt\/Main 1991.<\/p>\n

– Hans Kaufmann, Heine \/ Ein Lesebuch f\u00fcr Unsere Zeit<\/em>, Aufbau Verlag, Berlin und Weimar 1983.<\/p>\n

– Deniz Kavuk\u00e7uo\u011flu, Karl Marx\u2019tan G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze Almanya\u2019da Sosyal Demokrasi<\/em>, \u00dcmit Yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k, Ankara 1997.<\/p>\n

– J\u00fcrgen Kuczynski, Geschichte des Alltags des deutschen Volkes<\/em> [5 B\u00e4nde], 3. cilt (1810-1870) ve 4. cilt (1871-1918), Pahl-Rugenstein Verlag, K\u00f6ln 1981-1982.<\/p>\n

– Stephen J. Lee, Avrupa Tarihinden Kesitler \/ 1789-1980<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi, Ankara 2004.<\/p>\n

– K. Marx – F. Engels, Politika ve Felsefe<\/em>, \u00d6nc\u00fc Kitabevi, \u0130stanbul 1971.<\/p>\n

– W. H. McNeill, D\u00fcnya Tarihi<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1985.<\/p>\n

– Susanna Miller \/ Heinrich Potthoff, Kleine Geschichte der SPD \u2013 Darstellung und Dokumentation \/ 1848-1990<\/em>, Verlag J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., Bonn 1991.<\/p>\n

– Barrington Moore Jr., Diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn ve Demokrasinin Toplumsal K\u00f6kenleri \/ \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f D\u00fcnyan\u0131n Yarat\u0131lmas\u0131nda Soylunun ve K\u00f6yl\u00fcn\u00fcn Rol\u00fc<\/em>, Verso Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1989.<\/p>\n

– Burhan O\u011fuz, Y\u00fczy\u0131llar Boyunca Alman Ger\u00e7e\u011fi ve T\u00fcrkler<\/em>, AAV Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2007.<\/p>\n

– \u0130lber Ortayl\u0131, \u201cOsmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu ve Alman Diplomasisi: Drang Nach Osten\u201d, Bat\u0131l\u0131la\u015fma Yolunda<\/em>, Merkez Kitaplar, \u0130stanbul 2007, s. 104-110.<\/p>\n

– \u0130lber Ortayl\u0131, Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda Alman N\u00fcfuzu<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1983.<\/p>\n

– \u201cPreussens wirkliche Gloria\u201d, Der Spiegel<\/em>, Nr. 33, 13.8.2007.<\/p>\n

– H\u00fcseyin Saliho\u011flu, Alman K\u00fclt\u00fcr Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130mge Kitabevi, Ankara 1993.<\/p>\n

– Bruno Schumacher, Geschichte Ost- und Westpreu\u00dfens<\/em>, Weltbild Verlag, Augsburg 1993.<\/p>\n

– Hans-Joachim Schoeps, Preussen \/ Geschichte eines Staaten \u2013 Bilder und Zeugnisse<\/em>, Propyl\u00e4en Verlag, Berlin 1995.<\/p>\n

– Klaus Schulz, Alman K\u00fclt\u00fcr Tarihi<\/em>, Orient Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2006.<\/p>\n

– Werner Stein (Hrsg.), Die wichtigsten Daten der Weltgeschichte \/ Der Kultur Fahrplan<\/em>, Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung, M\u00fcnchen 1998.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Stieve, Geschichte des Deutshen Volkes<\/em>, Verlag von R. Oldenbourg, M\u00fcnchen und Berlin 1941.<\/p>\n

– H\u00fcner Tuncer, Osmanl\u0131 Devleti ve B\u00fcy\u00fck G\u00fc\u00e7ler (1815-1878)<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2009.<\/p>\n

– Veit Valentin, Knaurs Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Droemersche Verlagsanstalt Th. Knaur Nachf., M\u00fcnchen-Z\u00fcrich 1960.<\/p>\n

– Wilfried Westphal, Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien<\/em>, Gondrom Verlag, Bindlach 1991.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Bir kapitalist \u00fclkenin emperyalistle\u015fmesi, ayn\u0131 zamanda gericile\u015fmesiyle birlikte ve e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olur. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc emperyalizm, ilhak e\u011filimi demektir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ilhak e\u011filimi sald\u0131rganl\u0131k demektir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc sald\u0131rganl\u0131k, gericile\u015fmeyle m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr, emperyalist gericile\u015fme mutlaka \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kt\u0131r. Emperyalizm \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla birliktedir, i\u00e7 i\u00e7edir. Emperyalist olup \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 olmamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Ancak emperyalist Almanya\u2019n\u0131n \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131kla kucakla\u015fmas\u0131, di\u011fer emperyalistlerin \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131ndan \u00f6ncedir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Almanya daha ulusalla\u015f\u0131rken, Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":376,"featured_media":19378,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[175,1464,28,222],"tags":[1617,580,1878,433,578,238],"class_list":["post-19377","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-138-sayi","category-dosya","category-sosyal-bilimler","category-tarih","tag-almanya","tag-emperyalizm","tag-irkcilik","tag-kapitalizm","tag-savas","tag-tarih"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t