{"id":21212,"date":"2015-06-01T12:23:26","date_gmt":"2015-06-01T09:23:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=21212"},"modified":"2018-03-08T12:32:57","modified_gmt":"2018-03-08T09:32:57","slug":"felsefenin-yeniden-dogusu-evrenseller-tartismasi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2015\/06\/01\/felsefenin-yeniden-dogusu-evrenseller-tartismasi","title":{"rendered":"Felsefenin yeniden do\u011fu\u015fu:\u00a0Evrenseller tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"

Skolastik felsefe 10. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan 16. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar etkin oldu. Do\u011frular\u0131 dinin dogmalar\u0131nda arayan bu okul felsefesi zamanla yeni\u00e7a\u011f d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini yaratacak olan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yeniliklerini de kendi i\u00e7inde geli\u015ftirerek ileriye a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131 ve giderek yerini yeni d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelere b\u0131rakt\u0131. Karolenjler R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019na ve Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan as\u0131l R\u00f6nesans\u2019a uzanan \u00e7izgide dogmac\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceden felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye do\u011fru yava\u015f ama k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti. <\/em><\/p>\n

Felsefe Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n ilk d\u00f6neminde yani 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lla 11. y\u00fczy\u0131l aras\u0131nda kiliselerde ve manast\u0131rlarda geli\u015fen dogmac\u0131 e\u011filimler \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde h\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131n\u0131n buyru\u011funa girmi\u015f ve edilgin bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imi olup \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bunu felsefenin dura\u011fanla\u015fmas\u0131, as\u0131l i\u015flevinin d\u0131\u015f\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 ve donukla\u015farak etkisini yitirmesi olarak anlayabiliriz. Ama bu zaman diliminde felsefe t\u00fcm\u00fcyle yok olup gitti demek a\u015f\u0131r\u0131ya ka\u00e7mak olur. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin iyiden iyiye k\u0131s\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k ortam\u0131 Aziz Paulus\u2019un (MS 1. y\u00fczy\u0131l) g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle yetinmek zorunda kald\u0131. Aziz Paulus yunan k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcyle yeti\u015fmi\u015fti, onda Stoa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6zellikle de Epiktetos\u2019un derin etkileri vard\u0131. O her kesimden kad\u0131n erkek herkesi birle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor, her \u015feyin Tanr\u0131\u2019dan geldi\u011fi bir d\u00fcnyada herkese dinginli\u011fi ve g\u00f6n\u00fcl geni\u015fli\u011fini \u00f6neriyordu. H\u0131ristiyanlar \u0130sa\u2019y\u0131 yunan de\u011ferleriyle ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n akla yatk\u0131n bir i\u015f olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 zamanla anlad\u0131lar. Paganlar tanr\u0131sal ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi b\u00fct\u00fcn bir varl\u0131\u011fa yayarken h\u0131ristiyanlar onu \u00dc\u00e7leme\u2019de s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131yorlard\u0131. 325\u2019de \u0130znik Konsili Baba\u2019yla O\u011ful\u2019un ayn\u0131 t\u00f6zden oldu\u011funu benimsedi: onlar ayr\u0131 t\u00f6zler olamazlard\u0131. Tanr\u0131sal ger\u00e7eklikte bir s\u0131rad\u00fczeni olamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

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\u0130skenderiye\u2019li Plotinos (205-270) H\u0131ristiyan olmamakla birlikte H\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131na temel olacak felsefi \u00f6\u011fretiyi haz\u0131rlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eski\u00e7a\u011f sonuna yakla\u015f\u0131p orta\u00e7a\u011f ko\u015fullar\u0131 ufukta g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde paganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n da sonu gelmi\u015f gibiydi. \u0130skenderiye\u2019li Plotinos (205-270) h\u0131ristiyan olmamakla birlikte h\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131na temel olacak felsefi \u00f6\u011fretiyi haz\u0131rlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu \u00f6\u011freti zaman\u0131n ko\u015fullar\u0131nda Platon\u2019culu\u011fun tektanr\u0131c\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015fa uygun bir yorumuydu. Ya\u015fam bi\u00e7imleri ve \u00fcretim ko\u015fullar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fiyordu. Bundan b\u00f6yle inanca ve g\u00f6reneklere h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k egemen olacakt\u0131. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k halklar\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131nda belirleyici bir rol \u00fcstleniyordu. Tabanda ba\u015flayan bu inan\u00e7 Roma\u2019da zamanla tepeye do\u011fru \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, \u00f6zellikle imparatorluk toplumlar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 ko\u015fullamaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bununla birlikte bu toplumlarda pagan g\u00f6renekleri hen\u00fcz t\u00fcm\u00fcyle b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f de\u011fildi: bir\u00e7ok eski de\u011fer halklar\u0131n altbilincinde hatta bilincinde yerini koruyordu. Y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131n al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 yok etmek kolay de\u011fildi. H\u0131ristiyanlar Orta\u00e7a\u011f boyunca paganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n dirilmesinden korktular. Bu durumda k\u00fclt\u00fcrd\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn mutlak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini s\u00f6yleyebilmek kolay de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n

Barbarlar diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan \u00e7e\u015fitli toplumlar\u0131n Avrupa\u2019da yay\u0131lmalar\u0131 da bu k\u00fclt\u00fcrd\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcnde etkili oldu. Bu yay\u0131lmalar 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f ve dalga dalga birka\u00e7 y\u00fczy\u0131l s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. O zaman d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce manast\u0131rlara s\u0131\u011f\u0131nmak zorunda kald\u0131. 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lla 8. y\u00fczy\u0131l aras\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcr etkinliklerinin k\u0131s\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir d\u00f6nem oldu. 8. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Carolus Magnus (B\u00fcy\u00fck Karl) diye an\u0131lan Franklar\u0131n kral\u0131 (768-814) ve Bat\u0131 \u0130mparatoru (800-814) Charlemagne\u2019\u0131n ya da Karl I\u2019in \u00e7abalar\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr at\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi. Birinci R\u00f6nesans ya da Karolenjler R\u00f6nesans\u0131 diye bilinen bu devinim de, bu eski de\u011ferlere yani yunan-latin kaynaklar\u0131na y\u00f6neli\u015f devinimi de gene Barbarlar\u0131n yay\u0131lmalar\u0131yla yar\u0131da kald\u0131. Birinci R\u00f6nesans k\u00fclt\u00fcr d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 biraz olsun canland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu arada manast\u0131rlar eski yap\u0131tlar\u0131n korunmas\u0131 gibi \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir i\u015flevi ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdiler. Manast\u0131r \u00e7evrelerinde ve piskoposluk \u00e7evrelerinde okullar a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131, bu okullar Skolastik denilen d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce devinimini ba\u015flatt\u0131lar. Yunancada skholastikos <\/em>okulla ilgili demektir. Schola <\/em>latincede okul anlam\u0131na gelir. Okul felsefesi diye nitelendirebilece\u011fimiz Skolastik felsefe \u00f6zellikle 10. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan 16. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar etkin oldu. Do\u011frular\u0131 dinin dogmalar\u0131nda arayan bu okul felsefesi zamanla yeni\u00e7a\u011f d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini yaratacak olan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yeniliklerini de kendi i\u00e7inde geli\u015ftirerek ileriye a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131 ve giderek yerini yeni d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelere b\u0131rakt\u0131. B\u00f6ylece Karolenjler R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019na ve Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan as\u0131l R\u00f6nesans\u2019a uzanan \u00e7izgide dogmac\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceden felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye do\u011fru yava\u015f ama k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti.<\/p>\n

H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa felsefi temel aray\u0131\u015f\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00d6nceleri k\u00f6leler aras\u0131nda yay\u0131lan h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k zamanla tabandan tavana do\u011fru geli\u015fti. Eski\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n somuta tutkun ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i insan\u0131 yerini \u00fcst d\u00fczeyde soyutlamalar yapabilen yeni insana b\u0131rak\u0131yordu. Bu da \u00f6b\u00fcr d\u00fcnya ger\u00e7e\u011finin bu d\u00fcnya ger\u00e7e\u011fini altetmesi demekti. Do\u011fa\u00fcst\u00fc do\u011fal d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u00e7ok \u00fcst\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu. \u0130nsano\u011flu g\u00f6zlerini g\u00f6klere dikiyor, g\u00f6r\u00fcnmeyen \u00fcst ger\u00e7ekli\u011fin pe\u015fine d\u00fc\u015fmeye ba\u015fl\u0131yordu. Bu ge\u00e7ici ac\u0131lar d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndan sonsuz mutluluklar d\u00fcnyas\u0131na ula\u015fma istemi orta\u00e7a\u011f insan\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca kayg\u0131s\u0131 olmu\u015f gibiydi. Ger\u00e7ek anlamda bir d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmler d\u00f6nemi ya\u015fan\u0131yordu. Ya\u015fam bi\u00e7imlerindeki ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bi\u00e7imlerindeki d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmler epeyce h\u0131zl\u0131yd\u0131 ama g\u00f6renekler ayn\u0131 h\u0131zla d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmedi: h\u0131ristiyanlar\u0131n \u00fcst d\u00fcnyayla ilgili vaatlerine ve bu vaatlere e\u015flik eden bask\u0131c\u0131 e\u011filimlerine kar\u015f\u0131n insanlar y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyu edindikleri de\u011ferleri bir \u00e7\u0131rp\u0131da g\u00f6zden \u00e7\u0131karamad\u0131klar\u0131 gibi zaman zaman o de\u011ferlere \u00f6zellikle sar\u0131lmak gere\u011fini duydular. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yetkeleri paganl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bitirebilmek i\u00e7in bask\u0131y\u0131 art\u0131rd\u0131k\u00e7a paganl\u0131k i\u00e7ten i\u00e7e yanmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Toplumlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez d\u00fcnyalar\u0131nda eski de\u011ferler varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 az\u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015ferek de olsa koruyordu. Paganl\u0131\u011f\u0131n dirilebilece\u011fi korkusu kiliseyi her g\u00fcn biraz daha ac\u0131mas\u0131z k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kilise adamlar\u0131 bu yeni dini k\u00f6kle\u015ftirebilmek ve yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131rabilmek i\u00e7in \u00e7ok \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

Bu y\u00f6nde felsefenin de inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir katk\u0131s\u0131 olmal\u0131yd\u0131. Dinlerle felsefeler benze\u015fseler de \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmezler. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k elbette bir felsefe de\u011fildir. Felsefe ve din iki ayr\u0131 aland\u0131r, konular\u0131 ve y\u00f6ntemleri ayr\u0131d\u0131r. Onlar\u0131 ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131rmaya kalkmak zorlama bir i\u015f olurdu. Dinsel bilgi dogmac\u0131d\u0131r, onda kan\u0131tlama yoktur: inan\u00e7 kan\u0131t gerektirmez. \u0130nan\u00e7 d\u00fczeyinde dogmac\u0131lar mutlak do\u011fruya usla ula\u015fabileceklerini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler. Kaba metafizi\u011fin \u00f6z\u00fcnde dogmac\u0131l\u0131k vard\u0131r. Dinler do\u011frular\u0131 mutlak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde sezmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken her t\u00fcrl\u00fc do\u011frulama kayg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n uza\u011f\u0131nda kal\u0131rlar. Dogmac\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmaz yaln\u0131zca bildirir. Do\u011frulanabilir bilgi dinsel inanc\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131na ve amac\u0131na uymaz. \u0130nan\u00e7l\u0131 ki\u015fi kesinlikten dogmac\u0131 belirlemeleri anlar. O usun belirleyicili\u011fine g\u00fcvenir. \u0130sa\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6mezleriyle ili\u015fkisi bir filozofun \u00e7\u00f6mezleriyle ili\u015fkisine benzemez. \u00d6rne\u011fin Platon\u2019un Sokrates\u2019den Porphyrios\u2019un Plotinos\u2019dan \u00f6\u011frendiklerini bir h\u0131ristiyan\u0131n \u0130sa\u2019dan \u00f6\u011frenmek isteyebilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnemeyiz. Dinde benimseme felsefede tart\u0131\u015fma vard\u0131r. Felsefede hay\u0131r demek evet demekten daha \u00f6nemlidir. Ele\u015ftirici bak\u0131\u015fa dayal\u0131 bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f al\u0131\u015fveri\u015fi felsefede \u00f6nemlidir. Dinde tart\u0131\u015fma bilinenin onaylanmas\u0131 ad\u0131nad\u0131r. Dinin ussal d\u00fczeyde felsefi bir i\u00e7eri\u011fi olmasa da inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan felsefenin y\u00f6ntemlerine benzer y\u00f6ntemleri olmal\u0131d\u0131r: b\u00f6ylesi bir tutum inanmak isteyene g\u00fcven verecektir. Dinbilim de g\u00f6stermeler yoluyla yani felsefi bir dille Tanr\u0131 temellendirmeleri yapar, b\u00f6ylece inanc\u0131 g\u00f6n\u00fcllerde k\u00f6kle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Filozof a\u00e7\u0131k ve anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r bir dizge ortaya koymaya y\u00f6nelirken din adam\u0131 b\u00f6ylesi bir a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131ktan yana de\u011fildir. Din adam\u0131 usa dayanmakla birlikte daha \u00e7ok g\u00f6n\u00fclle i\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcr. \u00d6rne\u011fin 17. y\u00fczy\u0131la geldi\u011fimizde Blaise Pascal Descartes\u2019\u0131 her \u015feyi usla \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in ele\u015ftirecek ve do\u011fruyu arayanlar i\u00e7in bir us ve g\u00f6n\u00fcl birlikteli\u011fi \u00f6nerecektir. Bu y\u00fczden bir din felsefesinden s\u00f6zetmek her zaman olas\u0131 olsa da b\u00f6yle bir felsefenin al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z anlamda felsefe olamayaca\u011f\u0131 kesindir. Zaten h\u0131ristiyan filozoflar\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fc dinbilimcidir. Onlar felsefeye dini temellendirmek ad\u0131na inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ad\u0131na y\u00f6neldiler. O zaman i\u015fe \u2018g\u00f6n\u00fcl\u2019\u00fc de katmak gerekiyordu. Kuru us tehlikelidir, do\u011frudan bilime a\u00e7ar zihinleri. Felsefe h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n payandas\u0131 olmu\u015ftur. \u0130sa \u00f6\u011fretisi basitti, bu \u00f6\u011fretiyle bir dini ayakta tutmak kolay de\u011fildi. Ba\u015flarda kilise babalar\u0131 h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 felsefi bir temele oturtmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131lar. Ne var ki bu ki\u015filer bu i\u015fin alt\u0131ndan kalkabilecek kadar donan\u0131ml\u0131 de\u011fillerdi. Yeni dinin \u00f6rg\u00fctleyicileri ayn\u0131 zamanda yeni dinin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 olmak istiyorlard\u0131. Aziz Cyprianus (3. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131-258), Aziz Hilarius (315-367), Aziz Ambrosius (340-397), Aziz Hieronymus (347-420), Aziz Augustinus (354-430), Tourslu Aziz Gregorius (538-594), Aziz B\u00fcy\u00fck Gregorius (540-607) \u00fcnl\u00fc kilise babalar\u0131d\u0131r. Bunlar\u0131n aras\u0131nda filozof a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan yaln\u0131zca Thagesteli Aziz Augustinus\u2019dur.<\/p>\n

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\u0130lk H\u0131ristiyan filozofu diye tan\u0131mlanabilecek Aziz Augustinus\u2019a g\u00f6re tanr\u0131sal do\u011fru tek ger\u00e7ek nedendi, her varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n nedeniydi. (Antonio Rodr\u00edguez\u2019in \u201cSaint Augustine\u201d adl\u0131 tablosu)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Aziz Augustinus ve Yeni Platon\u2019culuk<\/strong><\/p>\n

Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019da d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin geli\u015fmesi biraz da alttan alta s\u00fcren Aristoteles etkisinin su y\u00fcz\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131yla oldu. Aristoteles\u2019in yap\u0131tlar\u0131 epey zamand\u0131r k\u00fclt\u00fcr d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n uza\u011f\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015f ve uykuya yatm\u0131\u015f gibiydi: k\u00fclt\u00fcr ortamlar\u0131 Aristoteles\u2019den kopmu\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyordu. 5. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Suriyeliler, \u00f6zellikle de Edessa (kuzey Mezopotamya) Nesturileri bir\u00e7ok yap\u0131t\u0131 yunancadan suriye diline \u00e7evirirken Aristoteles\u2019in yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 da \u00e7evirdiler. Ba\u011fdat halifeleri bir\u00e7ok suriyeli bilgini saraylar\u0131nda konuk ettiler. Bu bilginler bu yap\u0131tlar\u0131 suriye dilinden arap diline \u00e7evirdiler. Bu defa Araplar elde ettikleri bu birikimi 11. ve 12. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda yahudi ve h\u0131ristiyan k\u00fclt\u00fcr adamlar\u0131na ilettiler. Bu aktar\u0131mlar s\u0131ras\u0131nda Aristoteles\u2019in epeyce de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe u\u011fram\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 do\u011fald\u0131r: metinlerin g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc\u011f\u00fc yanl\u0131\u015f anlamalara yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu metinler \u0130bni Sina gibi \u0130bni R\u00fc\u015fd gibi Gazali gibi arap d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerini ve baz\u0131 yahudi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerini etkiledi. Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n arap felsefeleri de yahudi felsefeleri de Aristoteles\u2019in izinde geli\u015fmi\u015ftir. Yeni-Platon\u2019culuk da hem bu \u00f6\u011fretinin kurucusu olan Plotinos\u2019un hem de daha sonralar\u0131 onu izleyen Aziz Augustinus\u2019un etkisiyle de\u011fi\u015fik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde bu Aristoeteles\u2019\u00e7i felsefelere kat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Aziz Augustinus ilk h\u0131ristiyan filozofudur. Bir kitapta onun Plotinos\u2019a dayanan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi \u015f\u00f6yle tan\u0131mlan\u0131r: \u201cYeni-Platon\u2019cu kuramlar ve h\u0131ristiyan dogmas\u0131 Aziz Augustinus\u2019un d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini payla\u015f\u0131rlar.\u201d H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir Tanr\u0131 temellendirmesi yapabilmek i\u00e7in gerekli her \u015fey Plotinos felsefesinde vard\u0131, onu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck de\u011fi\u015fikliklerle h\u0131ristiyan dogmalar\u0131na uydurmak gerekiyordu. Plotinos\u2019un varl\u0131k tablosunda en tepeye koydu\u011fu ve ilk hypostasis<\/strong> ya da ilk t\u00f6z sayd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cBir\u201d t\u00fcm nitelikleriyle h\u0131ristiyanlar\u0131n Tanr\u0131 kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131na pek g\u00fczel uyuyordu. B\u00f6ylece felsefede paganl\u0131ktan h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa ge\u00e7i\u015f kolay oldu. Aziz Augustinus\u2019a g\u00f6re tanr\u0131sal do\u011fru tek ger\u00e7ek nedendi, her varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n nedeniydi. Aziz Augustinus Plotinos\u2019un \u015femas\u0131na Kayra fikrini ekledi. Buna g\u00f6re Tanr\u0131 d\u00fcnyay\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f oldu\u011fu ama\u00e7lara g\u00f6re y\u00f6netiyordu. Aziz Augustinus Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan hi\u00e7 ku\u015fkulanmad\u0131. Onun h\u0131ristiyan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine bir ba\u015fka katk\u0131s\u0131 da \u201ck\u00f6kel g\u00fcnah\u201d anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131d\u0131r. Buna g\u00f6re her insan g\u00fcnaha e\u011filimli olarak d\u00fcnyaya geliyordu. \u0130nanc\u0131n temeline korkuyu yerle\u015ftirmekti bu. Aziz Augustinus\u2019dan sonra felsefe d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda bir bo\u015fluk oldu. Aziz Augustinus\u2019la Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n ilk filozoflar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki birka\u00e7 y\u00fczy\u0131ll\u0131k d\u00f6nem Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun y\u0131k\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve onun kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 \u00fczerinde yeni bir d\u00fcnyan\u0131n kurulmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemdir. Bu d\u00f6nemde belki de kimsenin felsefe d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnecek durumu yoktu ya da insanlar\u0131n d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda felsefeye yer yoktu. Yaln\u0131z birka\u00e7 inan\u00e7l\u0131 ki\u015fi felsefenin izini s\u00fcrmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. Bu ki\u015filerin adlar\u0131 felsefe tarihi kitaplar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez sayfalar\u0131 aras\u0131nda bulunabilir.<\/p>\n

\"\"Aziz Augustinus\u2019la ba\u015flayan ve 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n Aziz Tommaso\u2019suna kadar uzanan \u00e7izgide felsefenin ba\u015fl\u0131ca g\u00f6revi dinin hizmet\u00e7isi (anchilla theologiae<\/em>) olmakt\u0131. Bu hizmet\u00e7ilik h\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131nda \u00f6nemlidir. Aziz B\u00fcy\u00fck Gregorius Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n hizmet\u00e7ilerinin hizmet\u00e7isi<\/strong> diye an\u0131l\u0131yordu. B\u00f6ylece Platon\u2019cu \u00e7izgide Aziz Augustinus\u2019dan ba\u015flayarak ve 11. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n Aziz Anselmus\u2019unda (1033-1109) belli bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ussall\u0131\u011fa yakla\u015farak Aziz Tommaso\u2019da ussal \u00e7er\u00e7evede tam anlam\u0131nda Aristoteles\u2019\u00e7i bir \u00e7izgiye yerle\u015fen h\u0131ristiyan felsefeleri Yeni\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda d\u00f6nemlerini tamamlam\u0131\u015f oldular. Aziz Augustinus\u2019un \u00e7izgisinde felsefe yapanlar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda da Aziz Dionysios Areiopagites ya da Areiopagos\u2019\u00e7u Dionysios (5. y\u00fczy\u0131l) ve Boetius (480-524) vard\u0131r. Onlar\u0131 8. y\u00fczy\u0131l ve sonras\u0131nda Rabanus Maurus ya da Hrabanus Maurus (780-856) ve \u00e7\u00f6mezi Johannes Scottus Eriugena (810-880) izler. Felsefesini Areiopagos\u2019\u00e7u Dyonisios\u2019un etkisinde geli\u015ftiren Scottus Eriugena heptanr\u0131c\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle sapk\u0131n say\u0131ld\u0131 ve birka\u00e7 defa mahkum edildi.<\/p>\n

T\u00fcmeller ya da evrenseller tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Felsefenin yeniden do\u011fu\u015fu skolastik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ortam\u0131nda t\u00fcmeller ya da evrenseller tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131yla ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Felsefenin yeniden do\u011fu\u015fu demek onun yeniden bilgi sorunlar\u0131na dogmac\u0131 anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda y\u00f6nelmesi demektir. Her ger\u00e7ek felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f bir bilgi kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131na dayan\u0131r. Bu da \u00f6zneye nas\u0131l bir anlam y\u00fckledi\u011fimizle ve nesneden ne anlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zla, bu iki \u00f6genin birbiri \u00fczerindeki a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ne olup ne olamad\u0131\u011f\u0131yla ilgilidir. H\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131 \u00f6zne ve nesne kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tanr\u0131 kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u00e7inde ele al\u0131yor, onu yarat\u0131c\u0131 g\u00fcc\u00fcn kendini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdi\u011fi bir \u00f6z ve bi\u00e7im ili\u015fkisine indirgiyordu. Bu da Aristoteles\u2019in madde ve bi\u00e7im anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n h\u0131ristiyanla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imidir. Bu konuda bir tart\u0131\u015fma gerekmez miydi? \u0130nanmak i\u00e7in tart\u0131\u015fmaya gerek yoktur. Aziz Augustinus si fallor sum <\/em>yani aldan\u0131yorsam var\u0131m diyerek ku\u015fkuyu daha ba\u015ftan ortadan kald\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin kendine kapat\u0131lmas\u0131 diyebiliriz buna. Ancak zamanlar de\u011fi\u015fecek, ku\u015fkulan\u0131lmayan zamanlardan ku\u015fkulan\u0131lan zamanlara ge\u00e7ilecek, buna g\u00f6re inan\u00e7 tablosu da de\u011fi\u015fmeye ba\u015flayacakt\u0131r. Nitekim 11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda yani orta\u00e7a\u011f ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n h\u0131zl\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm noktas\u0131nda Aziz Anselmus (1033-1109) inanca usun \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 katmay\u0131 zorunlu sayarken bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fc haber verir. Art\u0131k yeni bir \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ayak sesleri gelmektedir. Aziz Anselmus\u2019a g\u00f6re inan\u00e7 t\u00fcm bilimin kayna\u011f\u0131d\u0131r, dolays\u0131z ve sars\u0131lmaz bilgidir, ama karanl\u0131kt\u0131r, onu usla ayd\u0131nlatmak gerekir: us bu karanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 a\u015facak ve inan\u00e7tan da bilim do\u011facakt\u0131r. F.-J. Thonnard onunla ilgili olarak \u015f\u00f6yle der: \u201cAziz Anselmus b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fckl\u00fc bir bile\u015fim ortaya koyamad\u0131: yap\u0131t\u0131 kilise babalar\u0131 d\u00f6neminin yetersizli\u011fini s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcr, o d\u00f6nemde felsefenin alan\u0131yla dinbilimin alan\u0131 hen\u00fcz birbirinden ayr\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u201d<\/p>\n

Skolastikler \u00e7evresinde 11.-12. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan t\u00fcmeller ya da evrenseller tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 ya da kavgas\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 epeyce u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. Bu tart\u0131\u015fma mutlu bir geli\u015fimin, felsefeye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn ya da felsefede yeniden do\u011fu\u015fun ilk belirtisiydi. Bundan b\u00f6yle felsefe dinin hizmet\u00e7isi olma g\u00f6revini bitirmi\u015f olarak as\u0131l konusuna, bilgi nedir ve bilginin de\u011feri nedir konusuna d\u00f6n\u00fcyordu. Bunda hem din \u00e7evrelerinin hem dind\u0131\u015f\u0131 ortamlar\u0131n \u00e7ok \u00f6nem verdi\u011fi Aristoteles mant\u0131\u011f\u0131 da belirleyici olmu\u015ftur. 11. ve 12. y\u00fczy\u0131llar sermayecili\u011fin feodallikten ve yeni felsefi kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131n skolastik felsefeden do\u011fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece felsefe as\u0131l g\u00f6revine d\u00f6nerken ilk insanc\u0131 filozoflar\u0131 da ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015f oldu. Felsefenin \u00f6zerkli\u011fine kavu\u015fmas\u0131 yolunda ilk ad\u0131mlar\u0131n at\u0131lmas\u0131yd\u0131 bu. G\u00f6n\u00fclden usa, metafizikten fizi\u011fe, Platon\u2019culuktan Aristoteles\u2019\u00e7ili\u011fe do\u011fru bir d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm ger\u00e7ekle\u015fiyordu. Bu biraz da Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n sonunu erkenden bildiren bir belirtiydi. Bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmde itici g\u00fcc\u00fc \u00f6zellikle Aristoteles\u2019in mant\u0131k metinleri sa\u011flad\u0131. Evrenseller sorunu felsefe adamlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ok u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131 ve onlar aras\u0131nda bitmez t\u00fckenmez \u00e7eki\u015fmelere yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Porphyrios\u2019un Eisagoge<\/em> ya da Aristoteles\u2019in kategoriler \u00f6\u011fretisine giri\u015f<\/em> adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131nda duyurdu\u011fu \u201czihnimizin ve bilgimizin de\u011feri\u201d sorununa dayanan bu tart\u0131\u015fma \u015fu soruyla ba\u015fl\u0131yordu: evrenseller ger\u00e7ek midir de\u011fil midir? \u201cGer\u00e7ekte bunlar bir\u00e7ok ger\u00e7eklikte ortak olan bir do\u011fay\u0131 da belirleyebilirler, bu do\u011fay\u0131 ve bu ger\u00e7eklikleri g\u00f6steren fikri de belirleyebilirler. Her \u015feyden \u00f6nce bireysel ger\u00e7ekliklerin \u00f6zyap\u0131lar\u0131yla fikirlerin ve bilimlerin \u00f6zyap\u0131lar\u0131 aras\u0131nda bir kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131k var gibidir. Deney bize birincilerin ger\u00e7ek insanlar gibi \u00e7ok oldu\u011funu, de\u011fi\u015fken ve yerelle\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011funu, ikincilerinse insanl\u0131k gibi tek, de\u011fi\u015fmez, zorunlu ve \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fcz oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir\u201d (F.-J. Thonnard). Bu sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmek i\u00e7in Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce adamlar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fik bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 geli\u015ftirdiler.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Orta\u00e7a\u011f dersliklerinden bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Adc\u0131lar ve kavramc\u0131lar<\/strong><\/p>\n

Baz\u0131lar\u0131 ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i diye nitelendirilen bir a\u00e7\u0131klamaya y\u00f6neldiler, buradaki ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilik Platon\u2019cu anlamda bir ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilikti, ger\u00e7ek anlamda \u00fclk\u00fcc\u00fcl\u00fckt\u00fc, ne var ki Platon \u0130dea\u2019lar\u0131n ger\u00e7ek oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemi\u015fti. Buna g\u00f6re ger\u00e7ek\u00e7iler bilimin nesnesi olarak somut nesneyi yoksad\u0131lar, onun yerine ger\u00e7ek fikir kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 getirdiler. B\u00f6ylece evrenseller mutlak bir ger\u00e7eklik de\u011feri kazand\u0131. Ancak bu ger\u00e7eklik neredeydi? Bu d\u00fcnyada apayr\u0131 bir yerde miydi, Tanr\u0131\u2019da m\u0131yd\u0131, yoksa \u015feylerde miydi? Adc\u0131 diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler somutun alan\u0131nda s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131lar ve a\u015fk\u0131n fikir\u2019i yads\u0131d\u0131lar. Onlara g\u00f6re ancak somut tek tek \u015feyler toplulu\u011funu kar\u015f\u0131layan ad\u2019lar ger\u00e7ek olabilirdi. T\u00fcrler ancak s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu, genel fikirler adlardan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildi. Vaktiyle Antisthenes \u015f\u00f6yle demi\u015fti: \u201cAt\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcyorum ama at t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6rm\u00fcyorum.\u201d Kavramc\u0131lara gelince, onlar fikirleri somut nesneden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z a<\/em> priori<\/em> veriler olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fcler, onlara g\u00f6re evrenseller zihnin \u00fcretti\u011fi nesnellikten ba\u015fka bir nesnelli\u011fe sahip olamazlard\u0131. S\u00f6zkonusu nesnellik ger\u00e7ek de\u011fil kavramsal bir nesnellikti. Buna g\u00f6re kavramlar ve evrenseller kendilerinde varolan \u015feyler olmad\u0131klar\u0131 gibi basit bir s\u00f6zc\u00fck de de\u011fillerdi, onlar yaln\u0131zca zihinde varolan ger\u00e7ekliklerdi.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William adc\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle \u0130ngiliz deneycili\u011fine giden yolu a\u00e7t\u0131 ve felsefenin dinbilimden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 konusunda b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131larda bulundu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ger\u00e7ek\u00e7iler Platon\u2019cu kavray\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla somut nesneyi yoksad\u0131lar. Onlara g\u00f6re soyut kavramlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n t\u00fcm \u00f6zelliklerini ta\u015f\u0131yan \u0130dea tek ger\u00e7eklikti. Evrensellerin ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi mutlakt\u0131. Aziz Anselmus ve Guillaume de Champeaux \u00f6zellikle bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc savundular. Adc\u0131lar \u0130dea\u2019n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar. Onlar i\u00e7in yaln\u0131zca somut nesneler vard\u0131, t\u00fcrlerin s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerden \u00f6te bir varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yoktu. Adc\u0131lar t\u00fcrlerin ancak s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerde bulundu\u011funu, genel fikirlerin adlardan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bildirdiler. Rocelinus bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc savunanlar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda geliyordu. Kavramc\u0131lara g\u00f6re evrensellerin ancak kavramsal bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi vard\u0131, onlar\u0131n ger\u00e7ek ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi yoktu. Abaelardus (1079-1142) bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fteydi. Bu tablodan anla\u015f\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 \u00fczere adc\u0131l\u0131k da kavramc\u0131l\u0131k da kilisenin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerine ayk\u0131r\u0131yd\u0131. Bununla birlikte baz\u0131 filozoflar kilisenin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 adc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kavramc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 savundular. Buna g\u00f6re her bilgi duyu verilerine indirgenebilirdi. Compiegne\u2019li Roscelinus (1050-1120) ve Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William (1270-1347) adc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fcleri oldular. Bir s\u00fcre \u0130ngiltere\u2019de ve \u0130talya\u2019da kalan daha sonra Fransa\u2019da piskoposluk kurulu \u00fcyeliklerinde bulunan Roscelinus ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flere kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ve bireysel t\u00f6z\u00fcn tek ger\u00e7eklik oldu\u011funu \u00f6ne s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Roscelinus \u00dc\u00e7leme anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na getirdi\u011fi ele\u015ftiriyle 1092\u2019de Soissons Konsili\u2019nce mahkum edildi. Rocelinus Baba ve O\u011ful biri yaratan \u00f6b\u00fcr\u00fc yarat\u0131lan olmakla iki ayr\u0131 ger\u00e7ekliktir sav\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcyor, \u00dc\u00e7leme\u2019de \u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 t\u00f6z\u00fcn varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. \u00dc\u00e7leme\u2019nin \u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 t\u00f6zden oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yl\u00fcyordu. Abaelardus\u2019un \u00f6\u011fretmeni olan Roscelinus evrensellerin somut bireylikleri yoktur diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

\u201cYenilmez doktor\u201d ya da \u201ctek doktor\u201d diye adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William adc\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle ingiliz deneycili\u011fine giden yolu a\u00e7t\u0131 ve felsefenin dinbilimden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 konusunda b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131larda bulundu. Onun Martin Luther\u2019i de b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde etkiledi\u011fi bilinir. Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William o d\u00f6nemin en etkili filozofuydu. Bir ara papal\u0131kla ba\u015f\u0131 derde girdi, daha sonra Fransiskenler tarikat\u0131ndan kovuldu. M\u00fcebbet hapse mahkum edilince Pisa\u2019ya ka\u00e7t\u0131, sonra M\u00fcnih\u2019e gitti ve papal\u0131kla \u00e7eki\u015fmesini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William\u2019a g\u00f6re evrenseller bizim ruhsal d\u00fcnyam\u0131z\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda herhangi bir ger\u00e7eklik ta\u015f\u0131mazlar. Onlar usun \u00fcretimlerinden ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fillerdir. Somut insan\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda \u0130nsan dedi\u011fimiz \u015feyin hi\u00e7bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi hi\u00e7bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 yoktur. S\u00f6zc\u00fckler uzla\u015fmal\u0131 \u015feylerdir, evrenseller usun \u00fcretimidir. Ockham\u2019l\u0131 William\u2019\u0131n gerekmedik\u00e7e varl\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7o\u011faltmamak<\/strong> ilkesi Ockham\u2019\u0131n usturas\u0131<\/strong> diye bilinir. O adc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla ingiliz deneycili\u011fine giden yolu a\u00e7arken Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n David Hume\u2019u<\/strong> diye de adland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Platon\u2019cu anlamda ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i filozoflar\u0131n ya da adc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa ve kavramc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kan filozoflar\u0131n yani kilisenin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerine uyan filozoflar\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131calar\u0131 Guillaume de Champeaux (1071-1120) ve Duns Scotus\u2019dur (1266-1308). Bu filozoflar \u0130dea\u2019lar\u0131n yani fikirlerin ger\u00e7ekten varoldu\u011funu, onlar\u0131n ger\u00e7ek ger\u00e7eklikler oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Bu Platon\u2019culara g\u00f6re evrensellerin apayr\u0131 bir varl\u0131\u011f\u0131, metafizik diyebilece\u011fimiz bir varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Guillaume de Champeaux ya da Champeaux\u2019lu Guillame, Roscelinus\u2019un derslerini izledi. 1108\u2019de Saint-Victor\u2019da bir okul a\u00e7t\u0131, 1113\u2019e kadar okulunun ba\u015f\u0131nda kald\u0131. Ch\u00e2lons piskoposu oldu. \u00d6\u011frencisi Duns Scotus Fransiskenler tarikat\u0131ndand\u0131. 1291\u2019de Lincoln\u2019de papaz oldu. Paris, Oxford ve K\u00f6ln \u00fcniversitelerinde dersler verdi. Dikkatinden ve titizli\u011finden \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc \u201cDoctor Subtilis\u201d diye adland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Onun \u201cScotus\u201dlu\u011fu \u0130sko\u00e7ya\u2019l\u0131 olu\u015fuyla ilgilidir. Duns Scotus\u2019a g\u00f6re tek ger\u00e7ek varl\u0131k evrensel oland\u0131r. Tek tek \u015feylerin hi\u00e7bir anlam\u0131 ve ge\u00e7erlili\u011fi yoktur. Scotus\u2019a g\u00f6re h\u0131ristiyan savlar\u0131n\u0131n ya da dogmalar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funu ussal olarak g\u00f6steremeyiz, bunlar inan\u00e7 \u00f6geleridir. \u00d6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn kayna\u011f\u0131 Tanr\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. D\u00fcnya bir olumsall\u0131klar alan\u0131d\u0131r. D\u00fcnyay\u0131 Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n istemi yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tanr\u0131 d\u00fcnyay\u0131 yaratmayabilirdi ya da ba\u015fka t\u00fcrl\u00fc yaratabilirdi, k\u00f6t\u00fcy\u00fc iyi ve iyiyi k\u00f6t\u00fc yapabilirdi.<\/p>\n

\"\"\u201cFelsefenin \u015f\u00f6valyesi\u201d Abaelardus<\/strong><\/p>\n

12. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Anselmus\u2019un pe\u015finden gidenlerin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc onun us\u00e7u yan\u0131n\u0131 geli\u015ftirmek \u00fczere dinbilimden uzakla\u015facak ve bilgikuram\u0131na y\u00f6nelecektir. Yeni felsefenin \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6zellikle bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmde yak\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bilgikuram\u0131na y\u00f6nelenlerin ba\u015f\u0131nda Pierre Ab\u00e9lard ya da Abaelardus gelir. Diyalektik\u00e7iler denilen bu bilgikuramc\u0131s\u0131 toplulu\u011funun i\u00e7inde yer alan Abaelardus kavramc\u0131l\u0131k \u00f6\u011fretisini geli\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Guillaume de Champeaux\u2019nun \u00f6nce \u00f6\u011frencisi sonra rakibi olan Abaelardus bir ara da Aziz Anselmus\u2019un derslerine girdi. Sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 bir aileden gelen ve \u201cfelsefenin \u015f\u00f6valyesi\u201d diye an\u0131lan Abaelardus d\u00f6nemin en \u00fcnl\u00fc felsefe profes\u00f6r\u00fcd\u00fcr, b\u00fct\u00fcn ilgileri \u00fcst\u00fcnde toplam\u0131\u015f gibidir. Abaelardus 1100\u2019de Melun\u2019de daha sonra Paris\u2019de bir felsefe okulu a\u00e7t\u0131. 1121\u2019de Soissons Konsili\u2019nce 1140\u2019da Sens Konsili\u2019nce cezaland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Saint Marcel manast\u0131r\u0131nda mahkum olarak altm\u0131\u015f \u00fc\u00e7 ya\u015f\u0131nda \u00f6ld\u00fc. Abaelardus din adam\u0131 s\u0131fat\u0131yla girdi\u011fi sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kavramc\u0131l\u0131k diye bilinen felsefesini geli\u015ftirdi. Abaelardus t\u00fcrlerin ve cinslerin metafizik bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve genel fikrin s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011fe indirgenemeyece\u011fini benimser. Bilgilerimiz kendilerini deneyde ortaya koysalar da deneyden gelmezler. Genel fikirler deney s\u0131ras\u0131nda kendilerini g\u00f6sterirler. Adalet kavram\u0131 bizde vard\u0131r, biz o kavram\u0131n bizdeki varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ancak bir adaletsizlikle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z zaman sezeriz. Buna g\u00f6re kavramc\u0131l\u0131k kavram\u0131 zihnin bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi olarak g\u00f6ren \u00f6\u011fretidir. Kavram\u0131n zihin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda herhangi bir kayna\u011f\u0131 yoktur, \u00f6yle olsayd\u0131 Platon\u2019cu anlamdaki ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ili\u011fe uygun olurdu. Kavram deneysel verilerle elde edilmi\u015f bir ger\u00e7eklik de de\u011fildir, \u00f6yle olsayd\u0131 adc\u0131l\u0131kla \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015firdi. Zihnin bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi olan kavram demek ki s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerle ilgili olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi zihnin d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki herhangi bir \u015feyle de ilgili de\u011fildir. Buna g\u00f6re Abaelardus evrensellerin kendinde \u015feyler olmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, zihnin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir yerlerden de gelmediklerini benimser. Kavramlar zihnin kendi i\u015flevleri ya da kendi bi\u00e7imleri olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmelidir.<\/p>\n

Son derece yayg\u0131n bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f vard\u0131r, bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f pek yanl\u0131\u015f olarak kavramc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n adc\u0131l\u0131kla ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilik aras\u0131nda bir orta yer, bir ge\u00e7i\u015f yeri oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcd\u00fcr. Oysa kavramc\u0131l\u0131k her iki anlay\u0131\u015fa da kesinlikle kar\u015f\u0131d\u0131r. Kavramc\u0131l\u0131k deneycili\u011fin a\u015f\u0131r\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131na da ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ili\u011fin a\u015f\u0131r\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131na da d\u00fc\u015fmeden bilgi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131nda daha \u0131l\u0131ml\u0131 ve daha dengeci bir yol tutar. Onun insanlara deneycilikle ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilik aras\u0131nda bir orta yer oldu\u011fu duygusunu veriyor olmas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni de bu olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Ne olursa olsun Abaelardus deneye \u00e7ok \u00f6nem veren bir filozoftur. Buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k onda evrensel fikir ortak bir ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi, somut bireylerde i\u00e7kin olan do\u011fay\u0131 ortaya koyar. Her \u015fey bir yana bu felsefe bize a\u011f\u0131r a\u011f\u0131r haz\u0131rlanmakta olan k\u00fclt\u00fcr a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc yeni zamanlar\u0131n m\u00fcjdesini verir. Felsefenin dinbilimden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131nda Abaelardus\u2019un katk\u0131s\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. O hem felsefeyi dinsel dogmalarla a\u00e7\u0131klamaya kalkmayan bir dinbilimci hem de yeniden do\u011fmakta olan \u00f6zg\u00fcr felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin yolunu a\u00e7an bir filozoftur.<\/p>\n

Platon\u2019culu\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 Aristoteles\u2019\u00e7ilik<\/strong><\/p>\n

11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan ve \u00f6zellikle 12. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131ndan sonra yayg\u0131nla\u015fan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce devinimlerinin ard\u0131ndan e\u011fitim alan\u0131nda da \u00f6nemli d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmler oldu. Bu d\u00f6nemde \u00f6zellikle Paris\u2019teki din okullar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ilgi g\u00f6rd\u00fc ve ayd\u0131n insanlar\u0131n d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde etkili oldu. Bu okullar giderek kendilerine kapal\u0131 ya\u015famlar\u0131ndan s\u0131yr\u0131ld\u0131lar, topluma a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131lar, bu arada kendi aralar\u0131nda b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftiler. Onlar\u0131n h\u0131zla geli\u015fmesi ilk b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00fcniversiteleri ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00fcniversitelerin ardarda kuruldu\u011fu bir y\u00fczy\u0131l oldu. Kurulu\u015f y\u0131llar\u0131 her kaynakta de\u011fi\u015fik g\u00f6sterilen \u00fcniversiteler din okullar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcyle varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Paris (1215), Toulouse (1233), Salamanca (1248), Oxford (1258), Montpellier (1289), Louvain (1425) gibi \u00fcniversiteler birbiri ard\u0131nca ortaya \u00e7\u0131karken k\u00fclt\u00fcr ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131n ko\u015fullar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. Bu olu\u015fumda belki de en b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131y\u0131 elbette Aristoteles\u2019in yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 latinceye \u00e7evirenler sa\u011flad\u0131lar. 13. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce \u00e7evreleri Aristoteles felsefesinin b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fc tan\u0131m\u0131yorlard\u0131. Aristoteles\u2019in yaln\u0131zca mant\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilen ayd\u0131nlar Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda Aristoteles kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve daha ba\u015fka kaynaklar\u0131 tan\u0131d\u0131lar. Daha \u00f6nce de belirtti\u011fimiz gibi Aristoteles Avrupa\u2019ya Araplar kanal\u0131yla girmi\u015f oldu. O d\u00f6nem arap d\u00fcnyas\u0131 epeyce geli\u015fmi\u015fti. 12. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131nda Avrupal\u0131lar Araplardan ald\u0131klar\u0131 metinleri Toledo\u2019da \u00e7evirterek yeni bilgilere ya da eski g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc kaynaklara ula\u015ft\u0131lar. Avrupa b\u00f6ylece Aristoteles\u2019e kavu\u015furken do\u011fu filozoflar\u0131n\u0131n metinlerini de tan\u0131ma olana\u011f\u0131 buldu. 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda Sicilya\u2019da bir \u00e7eviri devinimi ba\u015flat\u0131ld\u0131. Skolastikler bundan b\u00f6yle hekimlik kimya g\u00f6kbilim geometri gibi bilimler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan da zengin metinlere ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f oldular. Buna eski\u00e7a\u011f metinlerinin do\u011fruca yunancadan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u00e7evirileri de eklenince Avrupa tam anlam\u0131nda bir uyan\u0131\u015f d\u00f6nemine girmi\u015f oldu. Eski\u00e7a\u011f k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc t\u00fcm\u00fcyle \u00f6z\u00fcmleme \u00e7abas\u0131na giren Avrupal\u0131lar felsefede de yeni at\u0131l\u0131mlar ba\u015flatt\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

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Astronomi ve geometri \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan orta\u00e7a\u011f bilginleri.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Aristoteles\u2019in d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce d\u00fcnyas\u0131 Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce d\u00fcnyas\u0131na yans\u0131y\u0131nca verimli bir bile\u015fim ortaya \u00e7\u0131karken baz\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckler de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Aristoteles pagand\u0131, onu h\u0131ristiyan inanc\u0131na uydurmak gerekiyordu. 1210\u2019da Paris\u2019de toplanan Sens konsili Aristoteles\u2019in \u201cdo\u011fal felsefe\u201dsinin \u00f6zel ve resmi her t\u00fcrl\u00fc \u00f6\u011fretimini yasaklad\u0131. Giderek konu \u00fcniversitelerle papal\u0131k aras\u0131nda ciddi anlamda \u00e7eki\u015fme konusu oldu. \u00dcniversiteler papaya direndiler. Oxford \u00fcniversitesinde Aristoteles\u2019in t\u00fcm yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayan ve yorumlayan dersler yap\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bu e\u011filim daha sonra Paris \u00fcniversitesinde de g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc. Bu direni\u015f kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kilise susmak ve Aristoteles\u2019i sessizce onaylamak durumunda kald\u0131. Bu arada Aristoteles\u2019i h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011fa uydurma \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 da s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc. Gen\u00e7 bilimadamlar\u0131 Aristoteles\u2019in ve \u0130bni R\u00fc\u015fd\u2019\u00fcn yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir tutkuyla okuyup \u00f6z\u00fcmlemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken tutucu bir topluluk Augustinus\u2019\u00e7u anlay\u0131\u015fa ba\u011fl\u0131 kalarak felsefede yeni at\u0131l\u0131mlara kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. B\u00f6ylece Aristoteles\u2019\u00e7ilikle Augustinus\u2019\u00e7uluk kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya konulmu\u015f oldu. Bu biraz da Platon\u2019la Aristoteles\u2019in kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya gelmesiydi. Somuta ve bilim kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131na y\u00f6nelik Aristoteles d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi gizemci Platon\u2019culu\u011fu geride b\u0131rak\u0131yordu. Bu arada Aziz Tommaso\u2019nun Aristoteles\u2019i h\u0131ristiyan dogmalar\u0131na uygulamas\u0131 Augustinus\u2019\u00e7u e\u011filimleri az\u00e7ok geriletti. Bununla birlikte 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca Aristoteles\u2019\u00e7ilik sorunu s\u00fcr\u00fcp gitti ve zaman zaman b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalara yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu arada Aristoteles\u2019le Augustinus\u2019u ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan se\u00e7meci \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar da yap\u0131ld\u0131. 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l d\u00fcnya k\u00fclt\u00fcr tarihinde \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm noktas\u0131d\u0131r. Onu b\u00fct\u00fcn verimiyle 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve sanat at\u0131l\u0131mlar\u0131 izleyecektir.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Skolastik felsefe 10. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan 16. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar etkin oldu. Do\u011frular\u0131 dinin dogmalar\u0131nda arayan bu okul felsefesi zamanla yeni\u00e7a\u011f d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini yaratacak olan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yeniliklerini de kendi i\u00e7inde geli\u015ftirerek ileriye a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131 ve giderek yerini yeni d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelere b\u0131rakt\u0131. Karolenjler R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019na ve Skolastik R\u00f6nesans\u0131\u2019ndan as\u0131l R\u00f6nesans\u2019a uzanan \u00e7izgide dogmac\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceden felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye do\u011fru yava\u015f ama k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":206,"featured_media":21213,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173,221,222],"tags":[599,237,729,614,881],"class_list":["post-21212","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-136-sayi","category-felsefe","category-tarih","tag-dinler-tarihi","tag-felsefe","tag-felsefe-tarihi","tag-hiristiyanlik","tag-ortacag"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t