{"id":22191,"date":"2007-01-01T16:19:12","date_gmt":"2007-01-01T14:19:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=22191"},"modified":"2018-03-22T16:28:35","modified_gmt":"2018-03-22T13:28:35","slug":"andreas-vesalius-ve-de-humani-corporis-fabrica-tipta-ronesans","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2007\/01\/01\/andreas-vesalius-ve-de-humani-corporis-fabrica-tipta-ronesans","title":{"rendered":"Andreas Vesalius ve De Humani Corporis Fabrica:\u00a0T\u0131pta R\u00f6nesans"},"content":{"rendered":"

D\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve insan\u0131 yeniden ke\u015ffetme olarak tan\u0131mlanabilecek R\u00f6nesans, t\u0131p biliminde de birebir etkisini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n Galen\u2019den sonra ve Harvey\u2019den \u00f6nce en etkili fig\u00fcr\u00fc olan b\u00fcy\u00fck anatomist Vesalius\u2019un, otorite kabul edileni sorgulama, ger\u00e7e\u011fi arama itkisiyle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 Fabrica bir t\u0131p ve sanat \u015faheseri olarak uygarl\u0131k tarihimizin temellerinden birini olu\u015fturur. <\/em><\/p>\n

\"\"Pek \u00e7ok bilim tarihi ve t\u0131p tarihi uzman\u0131, modern t\u0131bb\u0131n Andreas Vesalius\u2019un kitab\u0131 De Humani Corporis Fabrica<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n 16. y\u00fczy\u0131lda yay\u0131nlanmas\u0131 ile ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde birle\u015firler. Bu eseri ile Vesalius, titiz, k\u0131l\u0131 k\u0131rk yaran anatomik g\u00f6zlemleri ile insan bedeninin birebir do\u011fru anatomik tasvirlerini bilime kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Vesalius, yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n, y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r t\u0131p otoritesi kabul edilmi\u015f Galen\u2019in (MS 129-200) insan bedeni hakk\u0131nda s\u00f6yledi\u011fi ve kutsalla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131larak tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131z kabul edilen g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle \u00e7eli\u015fti\u011fini \u00e7ok iyi biliyordu. Yine de kitab\u0131ndaki bilgilerin bu denli b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6fke seline yol a\u00e7aca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve ink\u00e2rla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015faca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nceden kestirememi\u015fti. Bir anl\u0131k hiddet sonucu b\u00fct\u00fcn notlar\u0131n\u0131 yakarak, \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131p eserini yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Padova\u2019y\u0131 terk etti ve bir daha orijinal anatomik ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131na d\u00f6nmedi (1). Peki, Vesalius\u2019u bu duruma getiren, bu derece k\u00fcst\u00fcren sosyal \u015fartlar nelerdi?<\/p>\n

R\u00f6nesans – T\u0131pta R\u00f6nesans<\/strong><\/p>\n

Uygarl\u0131k tarihinde R\u00f6nesans olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan d\u00f6nem (14.-16. y\u00fczy\u0131llar) yeni bir \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131na i\u015faret eder. Asl\u0131nda onu \u00f6nceleyen Orta\u00e7a\u011f d\u00f6neminde ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f olan de\u011fi\u015fim, giderek h\u0131zlanarak, adeta bir patlamaya ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu dinamikler aras\u0131nda barutun geni\u015f \u00e7apta kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n sava\u015f sanat\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrmesi, matbaan\u0131n bulunmas\u0131, Portekizliler taraf\u0131ndan Hindistan\u2019a deniz ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla ticaret yollar\u0131n\u0131n ke\u015ffedilmesi, Kristof Kolomb (1451-1506) taraf\u0131ndan Amerika\u2019n\u0131n ke\u015ffi, para ekonomisinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131, \u0130stanbul\u2019un 1453\u2019de T\u00fcrklerce fethi ile Yunan bilginlerin Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli b\u00f6lgelerine g\u00f6\u00e7 ederek beraberlerinde antik bilgi miras\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131malar\u0131 ilk ba\u015fta s\u0131ralanabilir (2).<\/p>\n

B\u00fct\u00fcn bu geli\u015fmeler toplumsal alanda da kendini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. \u0130ktisadi olarak madencilik ve bankac\u0131l\u0131k faaliyetleri geli\u015fmi\u015f; siyasette geni\u015f k\u00f6yl\u00fc isyanlar\u0131 Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 sarsm\u0131\u015f, \u0130spanya gibi yeni imparatorluklar ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f ve 16. y\u00fczy\u0131lda zirveye ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f; \u0130ngiltere b\u00fcy\u00fck bir d\u00fcnya g\u00fcc\u00fc olma yolunda y\u00fckseli\u015fe ge\u00e7mi\u015f; Avrupa\u2019da Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019da kurulmu\u015f okullardan sonra daha kuzeyde de (Koenigsberg, Leyden, Edinburgh, Dublin) \u00fcniversitelerinin a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131, kenarda kalm\u0131\u015f kuzey \u00fclkelerinin de k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6nemini art\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Dinde reform ve kar\u015f\u0131 reform hareketleri ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sanat alan\u0131nda orta\u00e7a\u011f k\u00f6klerinden kopu\u015f, klasik antik miras\u0131n yepyeni sanatsal bi\u00e7imlerle yeniden yarat\u0131lmas\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Bireycilik, bireyin \u00f6neminin artmas\u0131, yeni tarz bir ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilik, toplumun her alan\u0131nda hissedilmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. E\u011fitim ve bilim de bu geli\u015fmelere uzak kalmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 zamanda t\u0131p e\u011fitimi de alm\u0131\u015f olan Kopernik (1473-1543), g\u00fcne\u015f merkezli astronomi kuram\u0131yla evren anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 ve alg\u0131lay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 t\u00fcmden de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. R\u00f6nesans sadece sanatsal olarak yeniden yarat\u0131\u015f s\u00fcreci de\u011fildi, modern t\u0131p ve bilimler i\u00e7in de yepyeni bir \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131 anlam\u0131na geliyordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Vesalius\u2019un Fabrica adl\u0131 eserinden \u00e7izimler.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ancak t\u00fcm bu devrimsel de\u011fi\u015fimlerin toplumun her katman\u0131nca hemen ve ayn\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00f6z\u00fcmsendi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenemez. Bu ayd\u0131nl\u0131k d\u00f6nem antitezini de i\u00e7inde bar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131yor ve h\u00e2l\u00e2 eski ile yeninin \u00e7eli\u015fkisi devam ediyordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin kentler \u00e7ok pisti ve insanlar hijyenik olarak \u00e7ok k\u00f6t\u00fc ko\u015fullarda ya\u015f\u0131yorlar, geni\u015f \u00e7apl\u0131 salg\u0131nlar ortal\u0131\u011f\u0131 kas\u0131p kavuruyordu. Toplumda bat\u0131l inan\u00e7lar \u00e7ok etkiliydi, insanl\u0131k tarihinin en utan\u00e7 verici olaylar\u0131ndan olan cad\u0131 av\u0131 R\u00f6nesans d\u00f6neminde \u00f6nceki d\u00f6nemlere oranla daha da yayg\u0131nd\u0131. Engizisyon etkiliydi.<\/p>\n

Yeni ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ili\u011fin kendini g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi belli ba\u015fl\u0131 alan olan sanat, t\u0131bb\u0131n anatomi dal\u0131n\u0131 da bu anlamda b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde etkilemi\u015fti. Anatomi kitaplar\u0131ndaki binlerce y\u0131ll\u0131k eski \u00e7izim ve resimler, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda, yerini yeni ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i \u00fcslupla haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015f yepyeni tasar\u0131mlara b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ressamlarla t\u0131p adamlar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki o denli yak\u0131nd\u0131 ki R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n \u00f6nde gelen merkezlerinden Floransa\u2019da doktorlar, eczac\u0131lar ve ressamlar ayn\u0131 loncaya mensuptular. Bu kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkile\u015fimin en \u00fcnl\u00fc \u00f6rneklerinden biri Leonardo da Vinci\u2019dir (1452-1519). Ayn\u0131 zamanda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ressam, bilim adam\u0131, m\u00fchendis ve bir deha olan Leonardo, ard\u0131nda \u00e7ok say\u0131da anatomik resim, \u00e7izim b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ancak Leonardo\u2019nun notlar\u0131 \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden 200 y\u0131l sonra bas\u0131labilmi\u015fti ve ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde etkisi yak\u0131n \u00e7evresi ve dostlar\u0131 ile s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 (3).<\/p>\n

Vesalius\u2019un \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f\u0131 \u0130spanyol ilahiyat\u00e7\u0131, hekim ve h\u00fcmanist Michael Servetus (Miguel Serveto 1511-1553), \u201ckan\u0131n kalbin bir kar\u0131nc\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan di\u011ferine akci\u011ferler arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla ge\u00e7ti\u011fini\u201d kitab\u0131nda yaz\u0131nca engizisyonun h\u0131\u015fm\u0131na u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Kilise, Galen\u2019in \u201ckan\u0131n sa\u011f kar\u0131nc\u0131ktan sol kar\u0131nc\u0131\u011fa iki b\u00f6lgeyi ay\u0131ran zar\u0131n g\u00f6zeneklerinden terleyerek damlalar halinde ge\u00e7ti\u011fi\u201d dogmas\u0131na inan\u0131yordu. Calvin, \u00dcniteryen (4) Servetus\u2019u, ba\u015fka dini gerek\u00e7elerle birlikte, sapk\u0131nl\u0131kla su\u00e7lad\u0131 ve kitab\u0131 ile beraber kaz\u0131kta yak\u0131larak idam edilmesini sa\u011flad\u0131 (5). Asl\u0131nda Servetus\u2019un, 13. y\u00fczy\u0131lda \u015eam\u2019da ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f \u0130bn Nefis\u2019in k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kan dola\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 tarif eden bilgilerinden yararlanm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu bug\u00fcn biliyoruz.<\/p>\n

\"\"Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) <\/strong><\/p>\n

Vesalius (Andr\u00e9 V\u00e9sale) b\u00f6yle bir Avrupa\u2019da, Alman ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 Flaman bir hekim ailesinin \u00e7ocu\u011fu olarak Br\u00fcksel\u2019de d\u00fcnyaya geldi. Katolik Louvain \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde t\u0131p okuduktan sonra, e\u011fitimini geli\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in Paris ve Montpellier T\u0131p Okullar\u0131na devam etti (6). Burada Galen\u2019in sad\u0131k takip\u00e7ilerinden Sylvius\u2019un \u00f6\u011frencisi oldu. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ya\u015flardan beri diseksiyona merakl\u0131 ve i\u00e7i i\u00e7ine s\u0131\u011fmayan Vesalius, burada k\u0131sa zamanda disseke insan bedeni hakk\u0131nda ilk elden bilgiler konusunda \u00fcn yapt\u0131 (7). Vesalius her \u015feyden \u00f6nce o zaman uygulanmakta olan t\u0131p ve anatomi y\u00f6ntemini ele\u015ftiriyordu. O g\u00fcnlerde hocalar uzun g\u00f6rkemli c\u00fcbbeleriyle oturduklar\u0131 y\u00fcksek k\u00fcrs\u00fcden, a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da kadavra ba\u015f\u0131nda bedeni a\u00e7an k\u0131sa \u00fcniformal\u0131 berber cerraha emirler verirler, cerraha Galen\u2019in kitab\u0131nda yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 i\u015faret ettirirlerdi. \u00d6\u011frenciler m\u00fcmk\u00fcn oldu\u011funca mesafeli durarak, kan, i\u00e7 organlar ve dokulara temas etmemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rlard\u0131. Bu \u015fekilde \u00f6\u011frenciler kokulu ve enfekte malzemeden korunabiliyorlard\u0131, ama anatomi \u00f6\u011frenemiyorlard\u0131. Vesalius\u2019a g\u00f6re bu kadar\u0131n\u0131 bir kasap bile yapabilirdi. B\u00f6yle bir seansta bir g\u00fcn kendini tutamayarak, diseksiyon masas\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131na ge\u00e7ip, berber cerrah\u0131n elinden b\u0131\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 kaparak, kusursuz kesilerle dersi tamamlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ellerinin ustal\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve yetene\u011fi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda muhafazak\u00e2r hocalar\u0131 bile hayran kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u00c7ok ge\u00e7meden Paris\u2019i arkada b\u0131rakarak, R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n t\u00fcm enerjisiyle ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u0130talya\u2019da, anatomi e\u011fitiminin en geli\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011fu Padua T\u0131p Fak\u00fcltesi\u2019nde hoca oldu. O zamanlar Vatikan\u2019daki papal\u0131k ile uzun ge\u00e7mi\u015fe dayanan bir husumeti bulunan \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fc Venedik Cumhuriyeti\u2019ne ba\u011fl\u0131 olan bu kent ona arzulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 serbest \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma ortam\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131 (8).\u00a0 Vesalius burada be\u015f y\u0131ll\u0131k hocal\u0131k s\u00fcresi boyunca bir yandan \u00f6\u011frencilerine insan v\u00fccudunun kas, kemik, damar yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 anatomi masas\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131nda bizzat \u00f6\u011fretirken, bulgular\u0131n\u0131 ve deneysel g\u00f6zlemlerini bir kitap halinde bir araya getirdi. Anlat\u0131lanlar\u0131n resimlenmesinin \u00f6nemini \u00e7ok iyi biliyordu. Ama R\u00f6nesans ressamlar\u0131na, gen\u00e7 bir k\u0131z\u0131n zarif elleri, ince bilekleri, h\u00fclyal\u0131 bak\u0131\u015flar\u0131, do\u011fal olarak, kadavra par\u00e7alar\u0131ndan daha cazip geliyordu. Vesalius iyi paralar \u00f6deyerek onlar\u0131 ikna etti. Usta \u0130talyan ressam Tiziano\u2019nun at\u00f6lyesinde, onun Flaman \u00f6\u011frencisi Jan Calcar (1499-1545) taraf\u0131ndan (9) incelikle ve ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imde \u00e7izilmi\u015f diseksiyon resimleri \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, t\u0131p biliminin ve sanat\u0131n \u015faheseri olarak Fabrica<\/em> ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Humani Corporis Fabrica<\/strong><\/p>\n

De Humani Corporis Fabrica libri septum <\/em>(\u0130nsan v\u00fccudunun yap\u0131s\u0131 \u00fczerine yedi kitap) 1543\u2019te Basel\u2019de Latince olarak bas\u0131ld\u0131. Eser, kapak sayfas\u0131nda, merakl\u0131 bir kalabal\u0131\u011f\u0131n disseke edilmi\u015f bir kad\u0131n bedenini iyice g\u00f6rmek i\u00e7in birbirlerini iterek merakla kadavraya e\u011fildikleri sahneyle a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131r (10). Vesalius\u2019un bu se\u00e7imi tesad\u00fcf\u00ee de\u011fildir. \u0130nsan bedeninin a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 ve anatomi masas\u0131 gerek halk\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fcnde ve gerekse mesleki anlamda da t\u0131bb\u0131n tam kalbini simgeler. \u0130nsan bedenini ilk a\u00e7an Vesalius de\u011fildi. 16 y\u00fczy\u0131l R\u00f6nesans \u0130talya\u2019s\u0131nda anatomik diseksiyon, t\u0131p hocalar\u0131 ve \u00f6\u011frencilerinin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, biletini alan halk\u0131n da kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 pop\u00fcler g\u00f6steriler halinde yap\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Ama Fabrica<\/em>, kararl\u0131 ve ne yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ok iyi bilen yazar\u0131 sayesinde anatomiye sayg\u0131n bilimsel kimlik kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Art\u0131k maymun, k\u00f6pek, domuz te\u015frihi yaparak, bunu insan bedenine aitmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6steren eski dogmatik-Galenik gelenek toptan y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin karaci\u011ferin be\u015f loblu, sternumun (g\u00f6\u011f\u00fcs kemi\u011fi) yedi par\u00e7al\u0131, mandib\u00fclan\u0131n (\u00e7ene kemi\u011fi) iki b\u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc, uterusun boynuzlu olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131; iki ayr\u0131 safra kanal\u0131 bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 (11) anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Kitap tutucu \u00e7evrelerin b\u00fcy\u00fck tepkisini toplad\u0131. Alayla, g\u00fcvensizlikle ve a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lamalarla kar\u015f\u0131land\u0131. Vesalius\u2019un hocas\u0131 Sylvius, kitab\u0131n yazar\u0131na Vesanus<\/strong> (\u201cdeli adam\u201d) ismini takarak yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u00fcr\u00fctmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ona g\u00f6re Fabrica<\/em>\u2019da yaz\u0131lanlar\u0131n Galen\u2019in \u00f6\u011fretileriyle uyu\u015fmamas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni insan v\u00fccudunun, aradan ge\u00e7en zamanda de\u011fi\u015fmesiydi. K\u00fcsk\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u00e7indeki Vesalius t\u00fcm yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 geride b\u0131rak\u0131p, \u0130spanya Kral\u0131 V. Charles\u2019\u0131n davetini kabul ederek, Madrid\u2019de saray hekimi oldu. Ondan sonraki yirmi y\u0131l\u0131 pratiyen hekimlik ile ge\u00e7irirken, bir ba\u015fka hekim ve anatomist Fallopius\u2019un mektubu onda eski diseksiyon \u015fevkini canland\u0131rd\u0131. O s\u0131rada \u015f\u00fcpheli bi\u00e7imde \u00f6len bir soylunun otopsisini yapmaya karar verdi. G\u00f6\u011f\u00fcs b\u00f6lgesini a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131nda beraberindeki izleyicilerle birlikte atan bir kalple kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131 sonunun ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 oldu. Engizisyonu teskin edebilmek i\u00e7in Kud\u00fcs\u2019e ha\u00e7 gezisine \u00e7\u0131kmakla cezaland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131, d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f yolunda ise \u0130talya\u2019da Zante Adas\u0131\u2019nda tif\u00fcsten \u00f6ld\u00fc (12).<\/p>\n

Sonu\u00e7<\/strong><\/p>\n

D\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve insan\u0131 yeniden ke\u015ffetme olarak tan\u0131mlanabilecek R\u00f6nesans, t\u0131p biliminde de birebir etkisini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n Galen\u2019den sonra ve Harvey\u2019den \u00f6nce en etkili fig\u00fcr\u00fc olan b\u00fcy\u00fck anatomist Vesalius\u2019un, otorite kabul edileni sorgulama, ger\u00e7e\u011fi arama itkisiyle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 Fabrica<\/em> bir t\u0131p ve sanat \u015faheseri olarak uygarl\u0131k tarihimizin temellerinden birini olu\u015fturur.<\/p>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) J. F. Fulton, Vesalius Four Centuries Later<\/em>, Lawrence, University of Kansas Press, 1950, s.1-52, zikreden: J.F. Murray,\u201dA thousand years of pulmonary Medicine: good news and bad\u201d, (Millenial Lecture), European Respiratory Journal<\/em>, No. 17, 2001, s.559.<\/p>\n

2) \u0130stanbul\u2019un fethinden sonra Avrupa\u2019ya ka\u00e7an bilim.adamlar\u0131n\u0131n beraberlerinde getirdikleri Yunanca ve Arap\u00e7a eserler, Bat\u0131l\u0131 bilim adamlar\u0131na ellerinde defalarca terc\u00fcme edilerek \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc yitirmi\u015f kitaplar\u0131 orjinalleri ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma imk\u00e2n\u0131 verdi. Ayr\u0131ca bkz. Ackernecht, A Short History of Medicine<\/em>, New York 1968, s.95.<\/p>\n

3) Ay. es.<\/em>, s.96.<\/p>\n

4) Unitarist: H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n temel inan\u00e7lar\u0131ndan baba (Allah), o\u011ful (\u0130sa) ve kutsal ruh \u00fc\u00e7lemesine inanmayan Unitarism mezhebi mensubu (Yazar\u0131n notu).<\/p>\n

5) Murray, a.g.m<\/em>., s.559. Bruno ve Galileo\u2019nun ba\u015f\u0131na gelenler de ayn\u0131 d\u00f6nemde dini ba\u011fnazl\u0131k \u00f6rnekleridir.<\/p>\n

6) Ali Haydar Bayat, T\u0131p Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130zmir 2003, s.137.<\/p>\n

7) Fielding Garrison, History of Medicine<\/em>, W. Sauders Co. Philadelphia, 1919, s.218.<\/p>\n

8) Victor Robinson, The Story of Medicine<\/em>, New York 1943, s.253-254.<\/p>\n

9) Ay. es<\/em>. s.255.<\/p>\n

10) John Bender, \u201cFrom Theater to Laboratory\u201d, JAMA<\/em>, Vol 287, No. 9, March 6, 2002, p. 1179.<\/p>\n

11) Ackernecht, a.g.e.<\/em>, s.105.<\/p>\n

12) Robinson, s.257-259.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

D\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve insan\u0131 yeniden ke\u015ffetme olarak tan\u0131mlanabilecek R\u00f6nesans, t\u0131p biliminde de birebir etkisini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n Galen\u2019den sonra ve Harvey\u2019den \u00f6nce en etkili fig\u00fcr\u00fc olan b\u00fcy\u00fck anatomist Vesalius\u2019un, otorite kabul edileni sorgulama, ger\u00e7e\u011fi arama itkisiyle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 Fabrica bir t\u0131p ve sanat \u015faheseri olarak uygarl\u0131k tarihimizin temellerinden birini olu\u015fturur. Pek \u00e7ok bilim tarihi ve t\u0131p […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":203,"featured_media":22196,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[73,33,222],"tags":[2695,206,413,640],"class_list":["post-22191","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-35-sayi","category-saglik-bilimleri","category-tarih","tag-andreas-vesalius","tag-bilim-tarihi","tag-ronesans","tag-tip"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t