{"id":25476,"date":"2014-06-01T11:54:53","date_gmt":"2014-06-01T08:54:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=25476"},"modified":"2018-05-15T12:40:15","modified_gmt":"2018-05-15T09:40:15","slug":"almanya-nasil-almanya-oldu-ya-da-bismarck-ve-tarihte-zorun-rolu","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2014\/06\/01\/almanya-nasil-almanya-oldu-ya-da-bismarck-ve-tarihte-zorun-rolu","title":{"rendered":"Almanya nas\u0131l Almanya oldu? Ya da Bismarck ve tarihte zorun rol\u00fc"},"content":{"rendered":"

Almanya y\u00f6netilemez durumdayd\u0131, toplum yat\u0131\u015fm\u0131yor, istikrar sa\u011flanam\u0131yordu. Bask\u0131, toplumsal canl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 azaltam\u0131yordu. Topluma uygulanan \u015fiddetin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi gerekiyordu. S\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 bekleyen biri vard\u0131 ve program\u0131 da haz\u0131rd\u0131. Kendisine g\u00f6re de, Almanya\u2019ya g\u00f6re de o, tek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fc. B\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahiplerinin temsilcisi Prens Bismarck, apar topar geldi ve parlamentodaki ilk konu\u015fmas\u0131nda hedeflere \u201ckan ve demir\u201dle var\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yledi, muhalefet diye bir \u015fey yokmu\u015f gibi davranarak \u201cprogram\u0131n\u0131\u201d uygulad\u0131. Alman ulusal devleti ve daha sonra Emperyalist Almanya b\u00f6yle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. <\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u201cNihayet kozmopolitizmden kurtuluyoruz. Ufac\u0131k uluslar\u0131n bizi zay\u0131f d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrecek parazitler gibi i\u00e7imize girme giri\u015fimlerini art\u0131k \u00f6nlemeye ba\u015flad\u0131k.\u201d\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>Wilhelm Jordan (1)<\/p>\n

19.y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck olaylar\u0131 30 ve 48 Devrimleri, Avrupa\u2019da en \u00e7ok Almanya i\u00e7in \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131. Belki bu devrimlerin en kapsaml\u0131s\u0131 Almanya\u2019da ya\u015fanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ama toplum, siyaset ve ekonominin en fazla sars\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve en fazla yeniden yap\u0131lanmak zorunda oldu\u011fu yer Almanya\u2019yd\u0131. \u00dclke y\u00f6netilemez durumdayd\u0131, toplum yat\u0131\u015fm\u0131yor, istikrar sa\u011flanam\u0131yordu. Bask\u0131, toplumsal canl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 azaltam\u0131yordu. Topluma uygulanan \u015fiddetin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi gerekiyordu. S\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 bekleyen biri vard\u0131 ve program\u0131 da haz\u0131rd\u0131. Kendisine g\u00f6re de, Almanya\u2019ya g\u00f6re de o, tek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

Zor: \u201cher \u015feyi \u00e7\u00f6zer\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00dclkeyi 1862\u2019de y\u00f6netmeye davet edilen b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahiplerinin temsilcisi Prens Bismarck (2), Prusya Meclisi \u00fcyesiydi ve en \u00f6nemli ba\u015fkentlerde el\u00e7ilik yap\u0131yordu. Apar topar geldi ve parlamentodaki ilk konu\u015fmas\u0131nda hedeflere \u201ckan ve demir\u201dle var\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yledi, muhalefet diye bir \u015fey yokmu\u015f gibi davranarak \u201cprogram\u0131n\u0131\u201d uygulad\u0131. \u201cZor\u201du \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karan y\u00f6ntem ve politikalar, \u201ckorkakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden burjuvazinin u\u011frunda m\u00fccadele edemedi\u011fi \u015feyler\u201din ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesini sa\u011flayacakt\u0131. (3) Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birinci<\/strong> ihtiyac\u0131, her \u015feyden \u00f6nce olmas\u0131 gereken \u015fey, \u201czor\u201ddu. Zor, yaln\u0131zca m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda zorunluydu.<\/p>\n

Bu konu ilk\u00f6nce \u201casker\u201d demekti. Roon\u2019la (4) birlikte Landtag<\/strong>\u2019a (Meclise) dan\u0131\u015fmadan ordu mevcudunu 135 binden \u00e7ok k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcrede 350 bine \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131 (bundan yedi y\u0131l sonra Fransa ile sava\u015fta cepheye 500 bin asker s\u00fcr\u00fclecekti). Biri muhaf\u0131z birli\u011fi olmak \u00fczere yeni birlikler olu\u015fturdu. Yeni donan\u0131m ile ileri teknikler kullan\u0131larak ordu modernle\u015ftirildi.<\/p>\n

Bu arada donanma da kuruldu (d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck donanmas\u0131 olana kadar b\u00fcy\u00fcyecekti).<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, \u201cAlman Reich<\/strong>\u2019\u0131n\u0131 \u015fekillendiren parlamentolar\u0131n kararlar\u0131 de\u011fil, asker ve ordu\u201dydu.<\/p>\n

Bismarck, devlet gelirlerini art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in yasalara uyup uymad\u0131\u011f\u0131na bakmaks\u0131z\u0131n keyfi vergiler koydu, usuls\u00fcz harcamalar yapt\u0131, birazc\u0131k muhalefet edenleri bile ezdi (\u00f6rne\u011fin, vergiler konusunda yasall\u0131\u011f\u0131 savunan Hannover Hanedan\u0131n\u0131n m\u00fclklerine el koyarak s\u00fclalenin b\u00fct\u00fcn varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 fonlara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcp aileyi kendi sahip oldu\u011fu topraklar\u0131ndan s\u00fcrd\u00fc ve iktidar\u0131n\u0131 kaybeden Wellsleri yokluklar i\u00e7inde s\u00fcr\u00fcnd\u00fcrd\u00fc (5)), parlamentoyu defalarca \u00e7i\u011fnedi ve sonunda feshetti.<\/p>\n

Ona g\u00f6re, dize getirilemeyecek veya sat\u0131n al\u0131namayacak hi\u00e7bir kimse ve g\u00fc\u00e7 yoktu. D\u0131\u015f \u00fclkeler toprak, liberaller birlik, muhafazakarlar korumac\u0131l\u0131k, sosyalistler refah vaatleriyle sat\u0131n al\u0131n\u0131r, al\u0131namayanlar ezilirdi. Herkes kendi i\u015fine bakmal\u0131, siyaset herkesin i\u015fi olmamal\u0131yd\u0131; hatta siyaset\u00e7ilerin bile. Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, gelecekteki Alman politikac\u0131lar\u0131 siyasetten \u00e7ok g\u00fcmr\u00fck uygulamalar\u0131 ve i\u015f\/ticaret d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 konu\u015fmal\u0131yd\u0131 (ve konu\u015facakt\u0131 da). Siyaset\u00e7iler aras\u0131nda siyaseti devre d\u0131\u015f\u0131 b\u0131rakan tart\u0131\u015fmalar, uzun soluklu ve verimli siyasetlerin \u00fcretilebilmesini sa\u011flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Geldi\u011fi toplumun gelene\u011fi ve al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, zorun savunulmas\u0131n\u0131 ve uygulanmas\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yor ve her \u015feyin zora dayan\u0131larak \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclmesinin anahtarlar\u0131n\u0131 veriyordu. \u201cPrusya rulu\u201d, asker toplumu \u00fcretmi\u015fti, \u015fimdi bu zamana uyduruluyordu, asker olmayanlar da asker gibi olacakt\u0131. O ruh, zor ile disiplin aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiyi kavram\u0131\u015f ve i\u00e7selle\u015ftirmi\u015f olarak tan\u0131mlanabilirdi.<\/p>\n

Ekonomi elbette \u00f6nemliydi. Ama ekonomi i\u00e7in herkesin ilk akla getirdi\u011fi \u201cb\u0131rak\u0131n\u0131z<\/strong>\u201d, yerini, m\u00fcdahalecili\u011fe b\u0131rakmak zorundayd\u0131. Ve bu da, ekonomi denen bu ayr\u0131 \u015feyin \u201czor\u201dun kapsam\u0131na girmesi demekti. \u201cZor\u201d, yaln\u0131z asker, silah, kan demek de\u011fildi. Bu y\u00fczden, Engels, siyasal zor ile iktisadi etkenler aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiyi inceledi (6), daha sonra Keynes, Alman imparatorlu\u011funun yaln\u0131z \u201ckan ve demir\u201dden de\u011fil, bununla birlikte -hatta bundan daha \u00e7ok- \u201ck\u00f6m\u00fcr ve demir\u201dden yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu kaydedecekti. (7) Moore ise, \u201cdemir ile \u00e7avdar\u0131n evlili\u011fi\u201dne g\u00f6nderme yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. (8) Ama Almanya\u2019da Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cekonomi\u201dsi, \u201czor\u201dun kapsam\u0131 i\u00e7inde bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131. (9)<\/p>\n

Y\u00f6netilen ve y\u00f6nlendirilen ekonomi \u00e7ok iyi gidiyordu ama burjuvazi zenginle\u015fti\u011fi ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar hak arayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in u\u00e7urum b\u00fcy\u00fcyordu. Servet ve gelir da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131ndaki e\u015fitsizlikler dikkat \u00e7eker \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerdeydi. \u0130ktidar, bedeli sonradan \u00f6denecek ekonomik-toplumsal gerginlikler i\u00e7ine girdi.<\/p>\n

Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda Hardenberg\u2019in (10) \u201cyukar\u0131dan ve tam zaman\u0131nda reformlar\u201d dedi\u011fi \u015fey Bismarck\u2019\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn yapmak istediklerine iyi bir temel olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

Sonu\u00e7ta \u015fu s\u00f6ylenebilir; \u201czor\u201d, Bismarck i\u00e7in her alanda ge\u00e7erliydi. Hem kapsam\u0131 olduk\u00e7a geni\u015fti ve hem de her alanda sonu\u00e7 vericiydi. Engels, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n siyasal hayat\u0131n\u0131 sergiledi\u011fi kitab\u0131n\u0131n altba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u201cBismarck\u2019\u0131n Kan ve Zul\u00fcm Politikas\u0131\u201d kelimelerini bo\u015funa eklememi\u015fti. Bu politika mutlak bir iktidar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde ve Bismarck\u2019a utanga\u00e7 ele\u015ftiriler yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda y\u00f6netimi destekleyen ayd\u0131n ve yazarlar\u0131n, ki say\u0131lar\u0131 az de\u011fildi, s\u00f6yleyecek ve yazacak fazla \u015feyleri olmuyordu.<\/p>\n

Evet, zor her alan i\u00e7indi. \u00d6rne\u011fin, d\u0131\u015f politika. D\u0131\u015f ili\u015fkiler, diplomasi demekti ve \u201cdiplomasi\u201d gerektiriyordu. Diplomasinin kendine has dili, adab\u0131, nezaketi, tarz\u0131, y\u00f6ntemi, s\u00f6ylemi vard\u0131, ama d\u0131\u015f politika i\u00e7 politika i\u00e7indi ve d\u0131\u015f politikada da zor olmadan olmazd\u0131. \u201cZor\u201dla \u201cdiplomasi\u201dnin uyu\u015fmas\u0131 zordu ama \u201ckibarl\u0131k\u201d da \u015fart bir \u015fey de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n

D\u0131\u015f politika: ama \u201ci\u00e7 politika i\u00e7in\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

Bismarck, Prim\u00e4r der Aussenpolitik<\/strong>\u2019i (d\u0131\u015f politikan\u0131n \u00f6nceli\u011fini) ke\u015ffederek bunu politikas\u0131n\u0131n ikinci<\/strong> aya\u011f\u0131 yapmasayd\u0131, belki de iktidarda kalamayacakt\u0131. Yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n gereklili\u011fini g\u00f6rd\u00fc, ama bunu, ayn\u0131 zamanda dikkatleri d\u0131\u015f sorunlara hapsetmek i\u00e7in kulland\u0131. Kom\u015fularla ili\u015fkilerdeki \u201csorunlar\u0131\u201d, ki a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 hepsi kendisi taraf\u0131ndan yarat\u0131l\u0131yordu, hem hep g\u00fcndemi dolduracak \u015fekilde abartarak ele ald\u0131, hem de hep halk\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fcne soktu. \u201cMilli menfaatler\u201d ve ulusal birlik gerek\u00e7esiyle \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckleri daha da daraltt\u0131. Danimarka s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131ndaki d\u00fckal\u0131klar\u0131 bahane ederek Danimarka\u2019ya sava\u015f a\u00e7t\u0131 (1864) ve zaferden sonra Silezya\u2019y\u0131 da ilhak etti.<\/p>\n

\"\"\u2018Avusturya ne kadar g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz d\u00fc\u015ferse Prusya o kadar kazan\u00e7l\u0131 olur\u2019 ilkesini \u00e7ekinmeden savundu. Daha 1859\u2019da, Garibaldi \u00f6nderli\u011findeki \u0130talyan ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 Avusturya\u2019yla ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k i\u00e7in sava\u015fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Bismarck Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n yaln\u0131z b\u0131rak\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nermi\u015f, \u00f6nerisi kabul edildi\u011finde Avusturya, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n deste\u011fini alan \u0130talya kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda yenilgiye u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Gene Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u00f6nerisiyle Prusya 1862\u2019de \u0130talya\u2019y\u0131 tan\u0131y\u0131nca Avusturya\u2019y\u0131 tam olarak kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131na alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Zaaf i\u00e7inde olan Avusturya\u2019ya 1866\u2019da Bismarck bu sefer kendisi sava\u015f ilan etti. Yedi haftada sonu\u00e7lanacak olan ama \u00e7ok pahal\u0131ya malolan Avusturya seferinden temmuz sonunda zaferle d\u00f6n\u00fcnce, iktidar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131lamaz oldu\u011fu gibi, \u201cBirlik\u201din \u00f6n\u00fcnde bir engel de kalmad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Alman Konfederasyonunun siyasi \u00e7er\u00e7evesi, birlik yolunda ilerlemeye hizmet edemezdi. K\u00f6kl\u00fc bir birlik i\u00e7in bu yapay birlik a\u015f\u0131lmal\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

1863\u2019te G\u00fcmr\u00fck Birli\u011fi\u2019nin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda tuttu\u011fu Avusturya\u2019y\u0131, tasarlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Alman birli\u011finin de d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda tuttu. Gerek\u00e7e bulmakta zorluk \u00e7ekmedi; \u201cBirlik, Avusturya olmaks\u0131z\u0131n\u201d kurulmal\u0131yd\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u201cAvusturya n\u00fcfusunun yar\u0131s\u0131ndan fazlas\u0131 Cermen k\u00f6kenli de\u011fil\u201ddi.<\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca Bismarck da\u011f\u0131lman\u0131n e\u015fi\u011findeki Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n getirece\u011fi \u201chastal\u0131k\u201dlar\u0131n fark\u0131ndayd\u0131. Bu \u201chastal\u0131klarla\u201d Birlik yeterince sa\u011flam olamazd\u0131. Avusturyal\u0131lar\u0131n Kaiser<\/strong>ine Macarlar \u201ckral\u201d diyor, Alman k\u00f6kenli olmayan b\u00fcrokratlar bitmeyen yetki \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla ikili iktidarlar g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc veriyor, hangi dilin ge\u00e7erli olaca\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcrekli tart\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131yordu. Viyana\u2019n\u0131n hali ise y\u00fcrekler ac\u0131s\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Kald\u0131 ki, \u201cKatolik Avusturya\u201d, birle\u015fmede zorluklara yol a\u00e7abilirdi. Mezhepsel ayr\u0131l\u0131k \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kabilirdi. Prusya Protestand\u0131. Ger\u00e7i birle\u015fmede dinsel bir etken kullan\u0131lmayacakt\u0131, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcney taraflar\u0131ndaki Katolik b\u00f6lgeleri de Birli\u011fin temel unsurlar\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu, ama Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yarataca\u011f\u0131 mezhepsel ayr\u0131l\u0131k bu sefer dinsel etkenlere rol verilmemesinin sa\u011flayaca\u011f\u0131 yarar\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131rabilirdi. Asl\u0131nda bunlar\u0131n hi\u00e7bir de\u011feri ve anlam\u0131 yoktu, di\u011ferleri gibi bu da bir bahaneydi, zaten istenmeyen Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n d\u0131\u015flanmas\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmek i\u00e7in Katolik oldu\u011funu hat\u0131rlamak ve \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmek uygun g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

Avusturya ise, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201cbirlik\u201d i\u00e7in, \u201cbirlik\u201d u\u011fruna y\u0131k\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 gerekli g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc konfederasyonu \u0131slah etmeyi ve \u0131slah ederek muhafaza etmeyi do\u011fru g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Avusturya a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan da bu konuda uzla\u015fma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 yoktu.<\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca Avusturya, yap\u0131lacak her \u015feyin, se\u00e7ilen ve atanan delegelerin meclislerince yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 \u015fart ko\u015fmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Albrecht Roon (1803-1879), b\u00fcy\u00fck askeri ba\u015far\u0131lara imza atm\u0131\u015f Prusyal\u0131 general. Sonradan Bismarck\u2019\u0131n da bakan\u0131 ve yak\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma arkada\u015f\u0131 olacakt\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Oysa Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, demokrasiyle, delegeler ve meclislerle, toplant\u0131lar ve kongrelerle bu i\u015f olmazd\u0131, olamazd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Meclislere se\u00e7ilen liberaller, i\u015fadamlar\u0131, meslek sahipleri vb, hem bu i\u015fin adamlar\u0131 de\u011fillerdi (\u201cbarikat kurma becerisinden\u201d yoksundular), hem de soyut s\u00f6ylemlerle \u201coyalamaktan ba\u015fka bir i\u015f yapmazlar\u201dd\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurjuva devrimi\u201d Almanya\u2019da zaten olanaks\u0131zd\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden Bismarck hakl\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birli\u011fini, yani Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ulusla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n olmazsa olmaz \u015fart\u0131 olan ulusal birli\u011fi \u201czor\u201dla ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in sahneye askerleri s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Ulusal b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fck \u201czorla\u201d sa\u011flanacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

1866\u2019da, on dokuz devlet ve \u00fc\u00e7 kentten olu\u015fan \u201cKuzey Alman Konfederasyonu\u201d, geli\u015fmelere Prusya damgas\u0131n\u0131 tam olarak vurdu. Bayra\u011f\u0131n renkleri bile Prusyal\u0131yd\u0131 (siyah ve beyaz Prusya\u2019n\u0131n rengiydi, k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 ise Brandenburg kenti ile Hanse Birli\u011fi\u2019nin). \u00dcstelik, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n tan\u0131mlamas\u0131na g\u00f6re, devletler federasyonu (Staatenbund) de\u011fil, federal bir devlet (Bundesstaat) ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131. Bunun anlam\u0131, e\u015fitlerin birle\u015fmesi yerine bir merkez etraf\u0131nda birle\u015fme oluyordu. Merkez elbette giri\u015fimin \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fcyd\u00fc, yani Prusya.<\/p>\n

Ocak 1871\u2019de, askeri g\u00fc\u00e7le b\u00fct\u00fcn prenslik ve krall\u0131klara boyun e\u011fdirilerek federal temelde ve 38 milyon insan\u0131 i\u00e7ine alan Alman Birli\u011finin kurulmas\u0131, konfederasyonu devre d\u0131\u015f\u0131 b\u0131rakacak, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n hakimiyetini ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 itiraz edilemez hale getirecekti.<\/p>\n

Bununla birlikte Prusya hakimiyeti, yaln\u0131z ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta de\u011fil, sonraki d\u00f6nemlerde de ho\u015fnutsuzluk nedeniydi. Prusya y\u00fcr\u00fctme g\u00fcc\u00fcnde s\u00fcreklilik sa\u011flamak pe\u015findeydi, bakanl\u0131k m\u00fcste\u015farl\u0131klar\u0131 hep Prusya\u2019dan oluyordu ve hep \u00f6yle olacakt\u0131. Prusya ile di\u011fer b\u00f6lgeler aras\u0131ndaki temsil ili\u015fkisi e\u015fitlik temelinde de\u011fildi, \u00f6rne\u011fin, parlamentoda Prusya temsilcilerinin veto haklar\u0131 vard\u0131 ve yetkileri fazla olmak \u00fczere \u00e7ok farkl\u0131yd\u0131 vb.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, demokrasiyle, delegeler ve meclislerle, toplant\u0131lar ve kongrelerle bu i\u015f olmazd\u0131, olamazd\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Pervas\u0131z militarizm, kurnazl\u0131kla y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen mubah\u00e7\u0131 ve ilkesiz diplomasi ile birle\u015ftirilmi\u015f, itirazlarsa yok olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019n\u0131n 1870\u2019te Prusya\u2019ya sava\u015f a\u00e7mas\u0131, ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131 ta\u00e7land\u0131racak bir f\u0131rsat olmu\u015f (11), \u201cd\u0131\u015f d\u00fc\u015fman\u201d, ulusal r\u00fczg\u00e2r\u0131 f\u0131rt\u0131naya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Sedan\u2019da Fransa\u2019n\u0131n yenilmesi, Frans\u0131z \u0130mparatorunun ve ordu komutan\u0131n\u0131n ordunun b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131yla birlikte (y\u00fcz binden fazla Frans\u0131z askeri) tutsak edilmesi (12) ve ordunun Paris\u2019e dayanmas\u0131 (13) ise son noktay\u0131 koydu; art\u0131k bir \u201cAlman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u201d (14), art\u0131k bir \u201cAlmanya\u201d, art\u0131k yeniden \u201cReich\u201d (imparatorluk) vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Hen\u00fcz birli\u011fe kat\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f b\u00f6lgeler, prenslikler, eyaletler, g\u00fcney Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birlik d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki birimleri, ama\u00e7lanan her yer imparatorlu\u011fa ba\u011fland\u0131.<\/p>\n

Alman ulusunu yaratmay\u0131 kafaya koymu\u015f Bismarck, ulus\u00e7ulu\u011fun uluslar\u0131 yarataca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, ulus yaratmak istemenin ulusu ortaya \u00e7\u0131karaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 adeta kan\u0131tlamak ve g\u00f6stermek istiyordu.<\/p>\n

Muhalefet eden ve edecek bir \u201cs\u0131n\u0131f\u201d yoktu. \u201cEski rejim\u201din hakim s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131 yerli yerindeydi. Bu \u201cmodern \u00f6ncesi se\u00e7kinler ve egemenler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131\u201d, devrimi imkans\u0131zla\u015ft\u0131rmakla kalm\u0131yor, siyasal mekanizmalar\u0131n olu\u015fmas\u0131na ve yerle\u015fmesine bile engel olabiliyordu.<\/p>\n

1918\u2019e kadar y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckte kalacak olan Anayasa, Hohenzollern Hanedan\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7bir hakk\u0131na dokunmuyordu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Bismarck\u2019a g\u00f6re, \u201cAlman yurtseverli\u011finin canl\u0131 ve etkili olabilmesi, kural olarak hanedanl\u0131\u011fa tutunma\u201ds\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Eskimi\u015f anlay\u0131\u015flar, kat\u0131 b\u00fcrokratizm, Katolik k\u00f6ktendincilik, Junker<\/strong>lerin ekonomik \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131, prenslerin egemenlik haklar\u0131 gibi konular sorun yaratmal\u0131yd\u0131. Ama bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc \u00f6nemli bir sorun \u00e7\u0131km\u0131yor ya da \u00e7\u0131kan \u00f6nemli sorunlar \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcl\u00fcveriyordu!<\/p>\n

Farkl\u0131 siyasal unsurlar\u0131n hi\u00e7biri, ortak \u00e7ok az ve fakat \u00e7at\u0131\u015fan \u00e7ok fazla \u00e7\u0131kar ve ama\u00e7lar\u0131 olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, muhafazakarl\u0131k paydas\u0131 alt\u0131nda topland\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in, muhalefet etmiyordu.<\/p>\n

\u0130mparatorluk ailesi i\u00e7inde bir muhalefet vard\u0131 ama bunun da bir etkisi olmuyordu. Bismarck bask\u0131 uygulamalar\u0131na ba\u015flar ba\u015flamaz kral\u0131n kar\u0131s\u0131 Augusta, liberalizmin \u00f6nemine ve yarar\u0131na dikkat \u00e7ekti. Sonraki y\u0131llarda da, Bismarck\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fcnen tek muhalefet\u201d olmakla kald\u0131. Gidi\u015fi de\u011fi\u015ftirme veya etkileme konusunda hi\u00e7bir \u015fans\u0131 olamad\u0131. \u00dcstelik kral Paris\u2019te imparator olduktan sonra, Bismarck kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, b\u0131rakal\u0131m dikkate al\u0131nmay\u0131, horlan\u0131r ve d\u0131\u015flan\u0131r da oldu. \u0130mparatori\u00e7enin yemeklere ve davetlere kat\u0131lmas\u0131 bile \u00f6nleniyordu.<\/p>\n

Ekonominin y\u00f6netilme \u015fekli, belirgin bir \u015fekilde, dar bir z\u00fcmrenin s\u0131n\u0131fsal \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zetildi\u011finin aynas\u0131yd\u0131. Kay\u0131rmalar, haks\u0131z yararland\u0131rmalar, soygunlar, zimmete para ge\u00e7irmeler, merkezinde Bismarck\u2019\u0131n bulundu\u011fu ve hi\u00e7birisinin resmi g\u00f6revli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir ekip taraf\u0131ndan d\u00fczenleniyordu. Bismarck ki\u015fisel servetini katlarken, kendisine destek olmayanlar\u0131 bat\u0131rarak ya da en az\u0131ndan zor durumlara d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrerek etkisizle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. \u00c7ok say\u0131da muhalif, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n ki\u015fisel bankeri ve mali d\u00fczenbazl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n, spek\u00fclatif entrikalar\u0131n\u0131n uygulay\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 Gerson von Bleichr\u00f6der\u2019in (1822-1893) kurban\u0131 oldu.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n siyasal uygulamalar\u0131, bu siyasal uygulamalar\u0131n sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 iktisadi \u00e7\u0131karlar, ulusun genel siyasetinin belirlenmesini kolayla\u015ft\u0131racak \u00f6zellikte ve etkinlikteydi. Daha ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6zetti\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131, ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar \u00fczerinde uyu\u015fmazl\u0131klar ve anla\u015fmazl\u0131klar bulunmakla ve hatta belli konularda \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar olmakla birlikte, o g\u00fcn ulusun \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131yla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu. Ayr\u0131ca s\u0131n\u0131fsal \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n tehdit edildi\u011fi izlenimleri de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Engels 1872\u2019de yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Konut Sorunu<\/em>\u2019na 1887\u2019de d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir notta bunu \u015f\u00f6yle a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131yordu: \u201c\u2026 b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak m\u00fclkiyeti ve sanayi sermayesi ittifak\u0131n\u0131 ayakta tutan, 1872\u2019den bu yana say\u0131ca ve s\u0131n\u0131f bilinci a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan muazzam bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6steren proletarya korkusu\u201dydu. (15)<\/p>\n

Kald\u0131 ki tehlikenin korkutucular taraf\u0131ndan ad\u0131 bile \u00e7oktand\u0131r konmu\u015ftu: \u201cHayalet\u201d. Ve bu hayalet, korkutucular\u0131n ifadesiyle gelmi\u015f kap\u0131ya dayanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bismarck, Rusya ve \u0130talya ile, sonralar\u0131 imparatorun yalan s\u00f6yleyerek inkar etmek zorunda kalaca\u011f\u0131 gizli ve yasal olmayan anla\u015fmalar yapt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Kas\u0131m 1872\u2019de \u00fc\u00e7 imparatoru Berlin\u2019de bir araya getirdi. B\u00fcy\u00fck bir giri\u015fimdi ama Rusya, Avusturya ve Alman imparatorlar\u0131 s\u00fcs olarak kullan\u0131ld\u0131lar. \u201cBar\u0131\u015f d\u00f6nemi\u201d ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Rusya ile yap\u0131lan Reas\u00fcrans Antla\u015fmas\u0131 (R\u00fcckversicherungsvertrag<\/em>, May\u0131s 1883), Fransa ve Avusturya konular\u0131nda askeri tarafs\u0131zl\u0131k tutumunu ve gerekti\u011finde askeri yard\u0131mla\u015fmay\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Ama Almanya, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Fransa\u2019ya sald\u0131r\u0131rsa Rusya\u2019n\u0131n Fransa\u2019n\u0131n yan\u0131nda yer alma hakk\u0131 sakl\u0131 kal\u0131yordu. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n hatas\u0131 olan bu durum, asl\u0131nda, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n Rusya\u2019n\u0131n arkas\u0131ndan \u00e7evirdi\u011fi dolaplar\u0131n, Rusya\u2019n\u0131n Balkanlarla ilgili politikalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 hileli ittifak aray\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n bir bedeli, bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Fransa ile ilgili politikas\u0131, Fransa\u2019y\u0131 her zaman zay\u0131f tutmaya ve istikrars\u0131z k\u0131lmaya y\u00f6nelikti. Fransa g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir iktidara kavu\u015fursa intikam almaya kalk\u0131\u015fabilir, istikrarl\u0131 bir y\u00f6netimle devrimci ge\u00e7mi\u015fi ve cumhuriyet\u00e7i gelene\u011fi y\u00fcz\u00fcnden kendi iktidar\u0131 i\u00e7in k\u00f6t\u00fc \u00f6rnek olu\u015fturabilirdi. Fransa\u2019n\u0131n i\u00e7 i\u015flerine kar\u0131\u015fmaktan hi\u00e7bir zaman \u00e7ekinmeyecekti. Uluslararas\u0131 alanda Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Almanya\u2019n\u0131n kom\u015fusu olan \u00fclkelerle, hatta kom\u015fu olmasalar bile ba\u015fka \u00fclkelerle i\u015fbirli\u011fi ve dayan\u0131\u015fma i\u00e7ine girmesini \u00f6nleyici politikalar hep g\u00fcndemindeydi.<\/p>\n

Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Avusturya politikas\u0131nda dikkat \u00e7ekici \u00f6zellik, d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n dozunu ayarlamak, daha do\u011frusu gerekli oldu\u011funda d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 tutmakt\u0131. Avusturya d\u0131\u015flanmal\u0131 ancak k\u00fcst\u00fcr\u00fclmemeliydi. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Avusturya, o g\u00fcnlerde de\u011fil ama sonra Almanya \u00fclk\u00fcs\u00fc i\u00e7in gerekli olabilirdi. Hatta Avusturya\u2019y\u0131 dize getirmeden \u00f6nceki \u201cd\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k\u201d, zaferden sonra yerini \u201ckarde\u015flik\u201de b\u0131rakmal\u0131yd\u0131. Avusturya zaten, Cermenlikten \u00e7oktan beri kopmu\u015f olan Fransa\u2019yla ayn\u0131 kefeye konulamazd\u0131, Fransa\u2019yla ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde ele al\u0131namazd\u0131, al\u0131nmamal\u0131yd\u0131. Avusturya ile yak\u0131n durmak, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Avusturya ile birlik olmas\u0131n\u0131 da \u00f6nlerdi, bundan da korkuluyordu \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc. Bu y\u00fczden \u201cYedi Hafta Zaferi\u201dne ra\u011fmen Avusturya\u2019ya \u201cyenik d\u00fc\u015fman\u201d muamelesi yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f, 1871 sonras\u0131nda ise \u201cimparatorlar\u201d aras\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ziyaretlerle yak\u0131nla\u015fma ama\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. (16) B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlara ra\u011fmen Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n aleyhine olan giri\u015fimleri a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131k\u00e7a diplomatik skandallar ya\u015fanacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Avrupal\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck devletler, Almanya\u2019y\u0131 ilgilendirmeyen ve etkilemeyen uyu\u015fmazl\u0131klar ve \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar i\u00e7inde olmal\u0131yd\u0131. B\u00f6ylece, Almanya aleyhine anla\u015fmalar\u0131 ve birlik i\u00e7inde olmalar\u0131 \u00f6nlenmekteydi. B\u00fcy\u00fck devletlerin \u00e7\u0131kar \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na Bismarck uzaktan bakar gibiydi, bu onlar\u0131n birbirlerine girmelerini kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Do\u011fu Sorunu sanki onu ilgilendirmiyordu. Bu konuda bir \u201c\u00e7\u0131kar\u0131\u201d yoktu. \u00c7\u0131kar\u0131 olanlar\u0131n (\u0130ngiltere ve Rusya) \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in, \u00e7at\u0131\u015fabilsinler diye, \u201canla\u015fmalar\u0131\u201d gerekti\u011fini savundu, Bismarck ise hakem olacakt\u0131. Birbirlerine girdiler, hakem haz\u0131rd\u0131. Ger\u00e7ekten de her \u015fey b\u00f6yle oldu ve kazanan \u201chakem\u201ddi. Bir g\u00fcc\u00fc bir ba\u015fkas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 oynama temelindeki Bismarck politikas\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131yd\u0131, \u201cancak uzun vadede ge\u00e7erli olamazd\u0131\u201d. Birbiriyle \u00e7at\u0131\u015fan g\u00fc\u00e7ler er ya da ge\u00e7 \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131n zedelendi\u011fini g\u00f6recekler ve birbirleriyle anla\u015fma yolunu tutacaklard\u0131. Ve b\u00f6yle de oldu. Fransa, hem \u0130ngiltere, hem de Rusya ile iyi ili\u015fkiler i\u00e7ine girdi. (17)<\/p>\n

\u00d6nceki d\u00f6nemlerde Kutsal Roma Cermen \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu \u00fczerinden yap\u0131lan tart\u0131\u015fma sonland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Bu tart\u0131\u015fmada, \u00f6rne\u011fin Prusyal\u0131 Heinrich von Sybel (1817-1895), Orta\u00e7a\u011f imparatorlu\u011funun yorumunu olumlu yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in Avusturyal\u0131 tarih\u00e7i Julius von Ficker\u2019e (1826-1902) sald\u0131r\u0131yordu. Sybel\u2019e g\u00f6re imparatorlar Almanya\u2019y\u0131 Papal\u0131kla birlikte s\u00f6m\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Versay Saray\u0131 Aynalar Salonu\u2019nda Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun ilan\u0131, 18 Ocak 1871.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ekonomide devlet\u00e7i-m\u00fcdahaleci gelenek zaten yeterince bir geli\u015fme sa\u011flamaktayd\u0131. Fransa\u2019dan al\u0131nan sava\u015f tazminat\u0131 olan 5 milyar Frank devletin belirleyicili\u011finde yat\u0131r\u0131mlara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve modern teknikler benimsenip teknolojik bir ilerleme ya\u015fan\u0131nca b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00fcretim patlamas\u0131 da oldu. 1850\u2019de 2 milyon ton olan Ruhr Havzas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n k\u00f6m\u00fcr \u00fcretimi 1973\u2019te 14 milyon tona varm\u0131\u015f, demir-\u00e7elik ve kimya sanayileri Avrupa\u2019da \u00f6nc\u00fc duruma gelmi\u015fti. Yaln\u0131z Prusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 ham k\u00f6m\u00fcr \u00fcretimi, 1846\u2019da 3,2 milyon tonken, 1871\u2019de 30 milyon tona \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. (18) (1914\u2019te Almanya\u2019da 200 milyon ton olacakt\u0131r) \u00c7elik \u00fcretiminde y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda 7 milyon tonla da \u0130ngiltere ge\u00e7ilecekti. Elektrik, boya maddeleri, optik vb. alanlar\u0131nda Almanya rakipsizdi. Tekstil ve metal\u00fcrjide buharl\u0131 makine kullan\u0131m\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan Almanya d\u00fcnyada \u0130ngiltere\u2019den sonra ikinci geliyordu. \u00dcretimde kullan\u0131lan buhar g\u00fcc\u00fc olarak da d\u00fcnya \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fcyd\u00fc (ikinci ABD). (19) 60\u2019lara kadar d\u00fcnyada gemilere z\u0131rh yap\u0131m\u0131 tekeli \u0130ngiltere\u2019deyken on y\u0131l sonra Almanya \u0130ngiltere\u2019yi ge\u00e7ecek, d\u00fcnyada en a\u011f\u0131r toplar\u0131 yapan da Krupp olacakt\u0131r. (20) Bunlara ra\u011fmen n\u00fcfusun h\u00e2l\u00e2 y\u00fczde 64\u2019\u00fc k\u00f6yl\u00fcyd\u00fc ve do\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerindekiler h\u00e2l\u00e2 Junkerlerin boyunduru\u011fu alt\u0131ndayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

E\u011fitim: b\u00fct\u00fcn toplum projelerinin vazge\u00e7ilmezi<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u0130\u00e7 politikada \u201czor\u201d, d\u0131\u015f politikada ise sava\u015f ve \u201cgiri\u015fkenlik\u201dle Alman Birli\u011finin sa\u011flanmas\u0131ndan sonra s\u0131ra \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc<\/strong> aya\u011fa geldi: e\u011fitim<\/strong>. Sonradan Nazilere b\u0131rak\u0131lacak bir miras olarak d\u00fczenlilik ve d\u00fczencilik, ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k ve ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131k ama\u00e7layan e\u011fitim, \u00f6nemli g\u00f6r\u00fclerek ciddi olarak ele al\u0131nd\u0131 ve tam olarak kurumla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Bedensel g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcl\u00fck, ahlak ve disiplin temel ilkelerdi.<\/p>\n

D\u00fcnyada ilk\u00f6\u011fretimi yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131ran ve zorunlu k\u0131lan ilk \u00fclkenin Almanya olmas\u0131 (21) haz\u0131r bir altyap\u0131 demekti. (22) Okulun, \u00f6zellikle ilkokulun, b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00e7ocuklara nas\u0131l iyi uyruk ve itaatk\u00e2r vatanda\u015f olunaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011fretmenin en kolay ve kestirme yolu oldu\u011fu da ke\u015ffedilmi\u015fti. Beden e\u011fitimi dersleri zaten 1840\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda ortaokul, 60\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda ilkokullar d\u00fczeyine indirilmi\u015fti ve askeri bir e\u011fitim yap\u0131l\u0131r gibi y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Derslerin ideolojisi de ihmal edilmemi\u015fti; bedeni geli\u015fen \u00e7ocuklar, Cermen k\u00f6kenli ve sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 ruhlu olduklar\u0131n\u0131 kavr\u0131yorlard\u0131! (23)<\/p>\n

\u201cTurner\u201d adl\u0131 jimnastik dernekleri, Alman ulusalc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u201cgen\u00e7lik kolu\u201d gibi yay\u0131l\u0131yordu. Beden e\u011fitimi, militarizm ve sald\u0131rganl\u0131k halini alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z Devriminin devleti e\u011fitimden sorumlu tutma anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ama Frans\u0131z Devrimindekinden ba\u015fka bir nedenle. Fransa\u2019da devlet, dinsel kurumlar\u0131n e\u011fitim i\u015flevini onlardan almak i\u00e7in g\u00f6revlendirilmi\u015f, b\u00f6ylece ayn\u0131 zamanda laiklik de g\u00fcvence alt\u0131na al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Almanya ise e\u011fitimi din kurumlar\u0131ndan ay\u0131rmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, laikli\u011fi de \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. E\u011fitimin amac\u0131, kitlelerin geli\u015fmesi, \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fmesi, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zla\u015fmas\u0131 ve geri inan\u00e7lardan kurtulmas\u0131 de\u011fildi. Tersine, devlete ve dinine ba\u011fl\u0131 kitleler, sava\u015flarda kullan\u0131lacak insanlar ve emirle hareket etmeye al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f \u201caskerler\u201d hedeflenmi\u015fti. Bu y\u00fczden e\u011fitim, dinsel e\u011fitimle hem i\u00e7 i\u00e7eydi, hem de modern insan anlam\u0131nda \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcr birey\u201di ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda yap\u0131lan reformlar, ekonomik, e\u011fitimsel, bilimsel, akademik ve teknik geli\u015fmeleri kolayla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortas\u0131nda Almanya, enerji, elektrik, optik, manyetik, kimya alanlar\u0131nda \u0130ngiltere ve Fransa\u2019dan daha fazla ve \u00f6nemli bulu\u015flara ve geli\u015fmelere bu sayede imza atm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru Almanya\u2019daki akademik bilim insanlar\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131 \u0130ngiltere\u2019dekilerin iki kat\u0131ndan fazla olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bas\u0131n\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irme ve dini kullanma, diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn dayanaklar\u0131 oluyor<\/strong><\/p>\n

Kurulan meslek birlikleri, gerici karakterleri y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, ta\u015fral\u0131 soylular\u0131n askeri y\u00f6netim ve y\u00f6ntemlere kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131ndan \u00f6nce ve buna f\u0131rsat vermeden, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n \u201cPrusyal\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131\u201dna yarad\u0131lar. \u00c7\u0131kar dernekleri, \u00e7\u00f6ken orta s\u0131n\u0131fa (Mittelstand) \u00e7are olam\u0131yorlard\u0131. Y\u00f6netici s\u0131n\u0131flara mensup herkes liberalizme, cumhuriyet\u00e7i fikirlere ve i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerine kar\u015f\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bas\u0131n, diplomatik ve politik ayak oyunlar\u0131nda kullan\u0131lacak hale getirildi ve hem i\u00e7 ve hem de d\u0131\u015f politikada Bismarck\u2019a ve d\u00f6neme tam olarak hizmet etti. Muhalif seslerin olanaklar\u0131 iyice k\u0131s\u0131tlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bas\u0131na hakim olmak i\u00e7in \u00e7ok para harcanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve harcan\u0131yordu. Bu s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z paran\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131 ise, Hannover hanedan\u0131n\u0131n mal ve m\u00fclklerinin el konulup Alman hazinesine aktar\u0131lmas\u0131yla biriken fonlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u00d6\u011frenci \u00f6rg\u00fctleri, baz\u0131s\u0131 feodal geleneklere ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131ktan, baz\u0131s\u0131 \u201cbuyruklara uyma gere\u011fi\u201dnden, baz\u0131s\u0131 da cereyana g\u00f6\u011f\u00fcs geremedi\u011finden, sosyal haklar ve de\u011fi\u015fimler i\u00e7in m\u00fccadele edecekleri yerde hakim havaya ayak uydurdular.<\/p>\n

Birli\u011fin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in ba\u015flarda dine hi\u00e7 ihtiya\u00e7 duyulmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, mezhepsel ayr\u0131l\u0131klar vard\u0131 ve bu zorluklar yaratabilirdi. Hatta, ihtiya\u00e7 duyulmamas\u0131ndan \u00f6te, konu olmas\u0131 da istenmedi, gerekmiyordu da. Bu y\u00fczden Bismarck dinsel kesimleri k\u00fcst\u00fcrmekten bile \u00e7ekinmedi (24), ama iktidar\u0131n\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir yasayla \u201cKilise Vergisi\u201dni uygulamaya koydu. Vergi, \u201cPrusya\u2019n\u0131n dini\u201d olan Protestan Kiliseyi zenginle\u015ftirdik\u00e7e din \u201cbirlik\u201de katk\u0131 sa\u011flayacakt\u0131 ve \u00f6yle de oldu. \u201cBirlik\u201dte pay sahibi din, devlet-kilise b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fmesi gelene\u011fine (25) uygunlu\u011fu y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, hem muhalefet cephesinin \u00f6nemli bir silah\u0131n\u0131 yok ediyor, hem de daha geni\u015f bir kitlesel onay sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. \u201cBar\u0131\u015fma\u201d yaln\u0131z \u201cPrusya\u2019n\u0131n dini\u201dyle de\u011fildi, uygulama b\u00fct\u00fcn kiliseleri kaps\u0131yordu. Katoliklerin de mali bak\u0131mdan g\u00fc\u00e7lenmeleri sa\u011flan\u0131yordu. Bu sayede b\u00fct\u00fcn kiliselerin gelirleri \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde art\u0131\u015f g\u00f6sterdi. Bu yasayla her yurtta\u015f, ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011fu kiliseye kazanc\u0131 oran\u0131nda vergi vermekle y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcyd\u00fc. (26)<\/p>\n

Zorba devletin temeli olan ve kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 durumuna gelen birlik g\u00fc\u00e7lendik\u00e7e, bask\u0131lar art\u0131yor, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckler \u00f6nemsizle\u015fiyordu. Demokrasiye ili\u015fkin her \u015feye kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmak moda oldu.<\/p>\n

Paralar\u0131na ve b\u00fct\u00fcn varl\u0131klar\u0131na el konarak kapat\u0131lan i\u015f\u00e7i ve ayd\u0131n \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmelerinin bir daha a\u00e7\u0131lamamas\u0131 i\u00e7in \u00f6rg\u00fctlerin \u00fcyelerinin s\u00fcrg\u00fcnlere g\u00f6nderilmesi, i\u015f\u00e7i mahallelerinin s\u00fcrekli \u201cku\u015fatma\u201d alt\u0131na al\u0131nmas\u0131, bask\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fczle\u015fti\u011fini g\u00f6steriyordu. Bir y\u0131lda yaln\u0131z Prusya\u2019da h\u00fck\u00fcmeti devirmeye, kral\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcrmeye te\u015febb\u00fcsten, h\u00fck\u00fcmdara kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmaktan ve benzeri su\u00e7lardan 1108 ki\u015fi, Bismarck\u2019a ya da h\u00fck\u00fcmete hakaretten 10.094 ki\u015fi tutuklanm\u0131\u015f, yarg\u0131lanm\u0131\u015f ve h\u00fck\u00fcm giymi\u015fti. (27)<\/p>\n

\"\"
Almanya Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131 kazand\u0131. Fransa y\u00f6netimine ve sava\u015fa kar\u015f\u0131 Paris\u2019te ayaklanan halk\u0131 krall\u0131k ezemeyince, Paris Kom\u00fcn\u00fc\u2019n\u00fc bast\u0131ran Almanya oldu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Bismarck\u2019a atfedilen \u201ckat\u0131 anayasac\u0131 \u00e7izgi\u201d, asl\u0131nda Bismarck\u2019\u0131n \u201canayasac\u0131l\u0131k\u201dla hi\u00e7 ilgisi olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 gizlemeye yar\u0131yordu. Bismarck\u2019\u0131n anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve uygulamas\u0131, \u201chukuk devleti\u201dne giden yollar\u0131, \u201ckanun devleti\u201d lehine daraltmaktayd\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden Almanya, hi\u00e7bir zaman kal\u0131c\u0131la\u015fma e\u011filimi g\u00f6steren bir hukuk devletine evrilemeyecek, zaman zaman da \u201cpolis devleti\u201dne varan hukuktan tam uzakla\u015fmalar\u0131 ya\u015fayacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Zaman\u0131nda her \u015fey iyi anla\u015f\u0131lamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ama tarih Bismarck\u2019a, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n zora ihtiyac\u0131na ve mecburiyetine hak da verdi; \u201czor\u201d kullan\u0131lmasa ve \u201czoru kullanan Bismarck\u201d olmasayd\u0131\u2026<\/p>\n

\u201cB\u0131rak\u0131n\u0131z\u2026\u201d itibar g\u00f6rseydi\u2026 Bar\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 olunsayd\u0131\u2026 Toplum bi\u00e7imlendirilmese ve \u201ce\u011fitilmeseydi\u201d\u2026 Vb, vb\u2026<\/p>\n

\u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Almanya ge\u00e7 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve Almanya\u2019n\u0131n acelesi vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Olgular ve sonu\u00e7lar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131nda Almanya, feodal par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k miras\u0131n\u0131 olanca a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla koruyor, krall\u0131k, prenslik, kontluk ve beylik olarak y\u00fczlerce devlet ve devlet\u00e7ikle \u201cy\u00f6netiliyordu\u201d. \u00a0B\u00fcy\u00fck devletler olarak yaln\u0131zca iki Alman devleti, Avusturya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu ile Prusya Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

2) Bu par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k geli\u015fmeyi \u00f6nledi\u011fi gibi, iki b\u00fcy\u00fck Alman devletinin Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fckleri aras\u0131nda etkin olmalar\u0131n\u0131n da engeliydi.<\/p>\n

3) Bu y\u00fczden her \u015feyden \u00f6nde gelen ihtiya\u00e7 birle\u015fmeydi, Alman Birli\u011fi idi.<\/p>\n

4) 30 ve 48 Devrimlerinden Almanya acil \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm gerektiren b\u00fcy\u00fck sorunlarla \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n

5) Yeterince geli\u015fmemi\u015f ve kendine g\u00fcvenmeyen burjuvazisi devrime \u00f6nderlik edememi\u015f, demokratik geleneklerden yoksun Almanya\u2019y\u0131, \u201cdevrim\u201d \u00e7izgisine oturtamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

6) 1848\u2019den sonra Alman burjuvazisi, \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fclmemi\u015f bir iktisadi y\u00fckseli\u015f ya\u015fad\u0131\u201d. (28)<\/p>\n

7) 30 ve 48 Devrimleri Alman gericili\u011fi taraf\u0131ndan ezildi\u011fi i\u00e7in Alman Birli\u011fine a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131m, halk hareketine ve demokratik yollara kapanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

8) Alman Birli\u011fi, Prusyal\u0131 toprak a\u011fas\u0131 Prens Bismarck\u2019\u0131n ba\u015fa getirilmesiyle, askeri g\u00fc\u00e7, zor ve her t\u00fcrl\u00fc yasal olmayan imk\u00e2nlar kullan\u0131larak kar\u015f\u0131devrim eliyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi.<\/p>\n

9) Alman Birli\u011finin sa\u011flanmas\u0131, Alman ulusal devletinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 demekti.<\/p>\n

10) Ancak bu ulusal devlet B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devriminin ulusalc\u0131l\u0131k anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 ve hatta ona ters bir \u00e7izgiye sahip oldu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Bismarck dinsel kesimleri k\u00fcst\u00fcrmekten bile \u00e7ekinmedi, ama iktidar\u0131n\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir yasayla \u201cKilise Vergisi\u201dni uygulamaya koydu; din ile bar\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

11) Etnik temelde kuruldu\u011fu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclen, varsay\u0131lan, fakat ger\u00e7ekte etnik bir birlik olmayan Alman devleti, ulusalc\u0131l\u0131ktan \u00e7ok, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa uygun bir zemin durumundayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

12) Bismarck, uzmanl\u0131k alan\u0131na giren d\u0131\u015f politikay\u0131 Almanya\u2019n\u0131n esas uygulamas\u0131 haline getirdi. Ancak bu \u201cd\u0131\u015f politika\u201d, sava\u015flar, entrikalar, dolaplar, ikiy\u00fczl\u00fc dostluklar, uygulanmayan anla\u015fmalar, hakemlikler, k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131l\u0131klar ve arabuluculuklar demekti.<\/p>\n

13) Almanya Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131 kazand\u0131. Fransa y\u00f6netimine ve sava\u015fa kar\u015f\u0131 Paris\u2019te ayaklanan halk\u0131 krall\u0131k ezemeyince, Paris Kom\u00fcn\u00fc\u2019n\u00fc bast\u0131ran Almanya oldu.<\/p>\n

14) 1871\u2019de Paris\u2019teki Versailles Saray\u0131\u2019nda Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu ilan edildi.<\/p>\n

15) Halk\u0131n ve i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n bask\u0131 alt\u0131nda tutuldu\u011fu \u015fartlarda ekonomi \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6sterdi, Almanya Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n en s\u00f6z sahibi b\u00fcy\u00fck devletleri aras\u0131na girdi.<\/p>\n

16) Bu ekonomik geli\u015fme temelinde Almanya\u2019da teknik, \u00fcretimsel ve bilimsel geli\u015fmeler oldu. Almanya, baz\u0131 bak\u0131mlardan ve baz\u0131 alanlarda d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en ileri ve en geli\u015fmi\u015f \u00fclkesi durumuna geldi.<\/p>\n

17) B\u00fcy\u00fck a\u011f\u0131r sanayi hamlesi silah yap\u0131m\u0131na y\u00f6nlendirildi. Almanya d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en fazla silah \u00fcreten, en fazla satan ve en fazla silahlanan \u00fclkesi oldu.<\/p>\n

18) Bismarck iktidar\u0131n\u0131n bu yaz\u0131ya konu olan d\u00f6neminde, say\u0131ca da \u00e7ok \u00e7o\u011falm\u0131\u015f olan Alman i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131, b\u00fct\u00fcn bask\u0131lara ra\u011fmen \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli m\u00fccadeleler verdi.<\/p>\n

19) Bismarck, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n en \u00f6nemli ve en \u201cba\u015far\u0131l\u0131\u201d diktat\u00f6r\u00fcyd\u00fc. B\u00fct\u00fcn sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 kazanm\u0131\u015f, b\u00fct\u00fcn planlar\u0131n\u0131 uygulayabilmi\u015f, b\u00fct\u00fcn hedeflerini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

20) B\u00fcy\u00fck bir donanma da kurmakta olan Almanya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu, emperyalist olmaya haz\u0131rlan\u0131yor, d\u00fcnyaya a\u00e7\u0131lma planlar\u0131 yap\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

\"\"Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) Hegelci solcu bir \u015fair olan Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Jordan (1819-1904), ayn\u0131 zamanda Frankfurt Ulusal Meclisi \u00fcyesiydi.<\/p>\n

2) 1847\u2019de 32 ya\u015f\u0131ndayken Prusya Parlamentosuna se\u00e7ilen ve Prusya temsilcisi olarak 36 ya\u015f\u0131ndayken de Frankfurt Ulusal Meclisine giren Otto Eduard Bismarck (1815-1898), 48 Devriminde kar\u015f\u0131devrimin hizmetine girdi, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 olarak i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerinin hep ezilmesi gerekti\u011fini savundu. 1848\u2019de, daha \u201colaylar\u201d ba\u015flarken \u201cdara\u011fac\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcndeme getirilmesi\u201d gerekti\u011fini s\u00f6ylemi\u015fti. 1878\u2019de imparatora, arkas\u0131ndan kendisine yap\u0131lan suikast giri\u015fimlerini bahane ederek \u00fcnl\u00fc gerici \u201cSosyalistler Yasas\u0131\u201dn\u0131 (Sozialistengesetz) \u00e7\u0131kartt\u0131, o d\u00f6nemde devrimciler kovaland\u0131, yakaland\u0131, devrimcilerin \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckleri tamamen yok edildi ve o d\u00f6nemin devrimcileri olan Sosyal-Demokratlar gizlilik ko\u015fullar\u0131nda \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaya itildi. II. Wilhelm\u2019in imparator olmas\u0131yla Bismarck\u2019\u0131n y\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131 s\u00f6nd\u00fc ve k\u00fcsk\u00fcn olarak \u00f6ld\u00fc. Bismarck\u2019tan sonra \u00f6zellikle d\u0131\u015f politikada ve yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131kta Bismarck\u2019\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir \u00e7izgiye girildi.<\/p>\n

3) August Bebel, Teoride ve Pratikte Politika<\/em>, Anadolu Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1969, s.68.<\/p>\n

4) Albrecht Roon (1803-1879), b\u00fcy\u00fck askeri ba\u015far\u0131lara imza atm\u0131\u015f Prusyal\u0131 general. Sonradan Bismarck\u2019\u0131n da bakan\u0131 ve yak\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma arkada\u015f\u0131 olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

5) Bu y\u00fczden, aradan y\u0131llar ge\u00e7tikten sonra Bismarck\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 \u201cparlamento i\u00e7i\u201d tek muhalefet olan Deutsche Zentrumpartei <\/strong>(Katolik \u201cAlman Merkez Partisi\u201d) hareketini, di\u011fer Prusya-kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 gruplar yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u201cProtestan\u201d Hannoverliler de destekleyeceklerdi (Engels, 1979, s.128-29). (Zentrum, ilk se\u00e7imde 57, sonrakinde 100\u2019\u00fcn \u00fcst\u00fcnde milletvekili \u00e7\u0131kararak Bismarck\u2019\u0131 zor durumlara sokmu\u015ftu.)<\/p>\n

6) 1878 tarihli Anti-D\u00fchring<\/em> ve 1887-88\u2019de yaz\u0131l\u0131p bas\u0131lan Die Rolle der Gewalt in der Geschichte<\/em> (T\u00fcrk\u00e7esi \u201cTarihte Zorun Rol\u00fc\u201d)<\/em>.<\/p>\n

7 J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequence of Peace (1919)<\/em>, s.75; akt. Lee, s.102.<\/p>\n

8) Moore Jr., s.35.<\/p>\n

9) Bu konu asl\u0131nda Almanya\u2019da kapitalizmin geli\u015fmesinin \u201cba\u015fka bir yoldan\u201d (\u201cPrusya Yolu\u201dndan) ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi ile ilgilidir. Buna g\u00f6re feodal ili\u015fkiler ve b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahipli\u011fi sistemi tasfiye edilmemekte, Junker<\/strong>lerin kapitalistle\u015fmesi, \u201ctar\u0131m sekt\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn sanayiye ge\u00e7i\u015fi\u201d s\u00f6z konusu olmaktad\u0131r. Sonu\u00e7ta bu \u201cyeni yol\u201d, \u201cdemokrasisiz kapitalizm\u201din yolunu a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ulusal devlete devrimle ge\u00e7ememesinin, birli\u011fini demokratla\u015fmadan sa\u011flamas\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131 da, burjuvazinin tarihsel rol\u00fcn\u00fc oynayamamas\u0131nda yatmaktad\u0131r. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n iktidardan uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan ve tasfiye edilen \u201cEski Rejim\u201di yoktur.<\/p>\n

10) Prusyal\u0131 bakan Karl August Hardenberg (1750-1822) yeni bir \u00fcretim ve sanayile\u015fme d\u00fczeni kurdu. \u201cPrusya Reformlar\u0131\u201d olarak an\u0131lacak 1808-1812 aras\u0131ndaki bu uygulamalar, Alman devletlerinin hemen hepsinde bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k bulacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

11) Bir\u00e7ok kaynakta diplomatik manevralarla Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Prusya\u2019ya sava\u015f a\u00e7maya zorland\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Fransa\u2019y\u0131 sava\u015fa mecbur b\u0131rakan provokasyonlar\u0131ndan s\u00f6z edilmektedir. Bunlar aras\u0131nda en \u00f6nemli olan\u0131, \u0130spanya taht\u0131na veraset yoluyla \u00f6nerilen Prusya kral\u0131n\u0131n akrabas\u0131 Prens Leopold\u2019a Fransa\u2019n\u0131n g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi tepkiyi Bismarck\u2019\u0131n casus belli<\/em> (sava\u015f nedeni) haline getirilecek kadar b\u00fcy\u00fctmesi ve istismar etmesidir. Bkz. Benedict Anderson, \u00dc\u00e7 Bayrak Alt\u0131nda \/ Anar\u015fizm ve S\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik Kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 Tahayy\u00fcl<\/em>, Metis Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2006, s.81.<\/p>\n

12) \u0130mparator III. Napoleon, Kassel kentinin Wilhemsh\u00f6he\u2019sinde aylarca s\u00fcrecek bir tutsakl\u0131k ya\u015fayacak, ordu komutan\u0131 ise Paris\u2019teki ayaklanan i\u015f\u00e7ilere sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 y\u00f6netmesi i\u00e7in tutsak Frans\u0131z askerlerinden olu\u015fturulan birliklerin ba\u015f\u0131na ge\u00e7irilecekti.<\/p>\n

13) Prusya ordular\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan sar\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcnlerde Paris\u2019te i\u015f\u00e7iler ayaklanm\u0131\u015f, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n ilk proletarya devrimini yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131, ama ba\u015fkent zor \u015fartlara dayanmaya, i\u015f\u00e7i iktidar\u0131 ayakta kalmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. Ku\u015fatma alt\u0131ndaki Paris\u2019te a\u00e7l\u0131k y\u00fcz\u00fcnden hayvanat bah\u00e7esindeki filler bile yenmi\u015fti. Halk sokaklarda ve la\u011f\u0131mlarda fare av\u0131ndayd\u0131. \u0130\u015f\u00e7ilerin iktidar\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmesiyle \u201cParis Kom\u00fcn\u00fc\u201d ad\u0131n\u0131 alm\u0131\u015f olan hareket, 70 g\u00fcn sonra her \u015feyin kaybedilmesi ve kitlelerin ezilmesiyle sonu\u00e7land\u0131. Ancak ilgin\u00e7 olan, Frans\u0131z h\u00fck\u00fcmetinin i\u015f\u00e7ilerin ezilmesi i\u00e7in i\u015fgalci Prusya ordusundan yard\u0131m istemesi, Bismarck\u2019\u0131n da i\u015f\u00e7ilerin ezilmesi i\u00e7in \u201cd\u00fc\u015fman\u201d\u0131na yard\u0131mda bulunmas\u0131yd\u0131. \u201cD\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u201d\u0131n, ayaklanan i\u015f\u00e7ilerin ve halk kitlelerinin ezilmesi konusunda anla\u015fmas\u0131 hi\u00e7 zor olmuyordu. Almanlar\u0131n elinde bulunan tutsak Frans\u0131z askerleri (y\u00fcz bin sava\u015f tutsa\u011f\u0131) Kom\u00fcnc\u00fclerin ezilmesine yard\u0131mc\u0131 olmas\u0131 i\u00e7in Paris\u2019e sevk edildi ve kendi halk\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 \u201cFrans\u0131z h\u00fck\u00fcmeti\u201dnin emrine verildi. Almanlar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda yenilen Bonapart\u00e7\u0131 Frans\u0131z subaylar, yenilen yurtta\u015flar\u0131na onlar\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in sald\u0131rmakta hi\u00e7 duraksamad\u0131. Y\u00fcz binlerce i\u015f\u00e7i \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc ve s\u00fcrg\u00fcnlere g\u00f6nderildi.<\/p>\n

14) 18 Ocakta I. Wilhelm, Paris\u2019teki Versailles Saray\u0131ndaki \u00fcnl\u00fc aynal\u0131 salonda ta\u00e7 giyerek \u201cAlman \u0130mparatoru\u201d unvan\u0131n\u0131 ald\u0131. 74 ya\u015f\u0131ndaki kral, korktu\u011fu i\u00e7in istemedi\u011fi halde Bismarck\u2019\u0131n dayatmalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

15) Friedrich Engels, Konut Sorunu<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1977, s.73.<\/p>\n

16) Fahir Armao\u011flu, 20. Y\u00fczy\u0131l Siyasi Tarihi \/ 1914-1980<\/em>, T. \u0130\u015f Bankas\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1986, s.23-24.<\/p>\n

17) H\u00fcner, s.162, 182-83; Gall, s.619 vd.<\/p>\n

18) James, s.101.<\/p>\n

19) Friedrich Engels, \u201cPamuk ve Demir\u201d, The Labour Standard<\/em>, 30 Temmuz 1881.<\/p>\n

20) Engels, 1979, s.43.<\/p>\n

21) Bu uygulama Fransa\u2019da 1860\u2019ta, \u0130ngiltere 1867 tarihli reform yasas\u0131ndan \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l sonra kurulmu\u015ftu. Geni\u015f bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Kemal Ayta\u00e7, Avrupa E\u011fitim Tarihi<\/em>, M. \u00dc. \u0130lahiyat Fak\u00fcltesi Vakf\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1992.<\/p>\n

22) Buna ra\u011fmen Prusya\u2019da ilkokul say\u0131s\u0131 sonraki otuz y\u0131lda y\u00fczde 50 daha artacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

23) E\u011fitime verilen \u00f6nemin olumlu sonu\u00e7lar\u0131ndan \u00e7ok yerde s\u00f6z edilmektedir. \u00c7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir \u00f6rnek, tarih\u00e7i E. Hobsbawm\u2019\u0131n, 1870-71 Prusya-Fransa sava\u015f\u0131nda Prusyal\u0131lar\u0131n Fransa\u2019y\u0131 kolayca yenmelerinin bir nedeninin de \u201caskerlerinin \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck oranda okuryazar olmalar\u0131ndan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131\u201d yazmas\u0131d\u0131r (Sermaye \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \/ 1848-1875<\/em>, s.57). O d\u00f6nemde okuma-yazma bilmeyenlerin askerlik \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ndaki gen\u00e7 erkekler aras\u0131ndaki oran\u0131 \u015f\u00f6yleydi: Fransa y\u00fczde 18, Prusya y\u00fczde 2.<\/p>\n

24) \u00d6rne\u011fin, Kulturkampf<\/em> (\u201cK\u00fclt\u00fcr Sava\u015f\u0131\u201d, bu g\u00fcya bat\u0131l inan\u0131\u015flara kar\u015f\u0131 bir m\u00fccadeleydi) ad\u0131n\u0131 verdi\u011fi uygulamalar\u0131yla Katolik kilisesini hedef al\u0131yordu. Papazlar\u0131n yer de\u011fi\u015ftirmesi yasaklanm\u0131\u015f, tarikatlar da\u011f\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bunlar i\u00e7in, esas olarak Katolik Kilisesine zarar veren yasalar \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

25) Alman tarihinde dini h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n sahiplenmesi ve kendilerini en y\u00fcksek din otoritesi sayd\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan din-devlet birle\u015fmi\u015fli\u011fi s\u00f6z konusuydu ve bu bir gelene\u011fe d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n

26) Bu yasa Almanya\u2019da halen ge\u00e7erlidir.<\/p>\n

27) F. Engels, \u201cBismarck ve Alman Emek\u00e7ilerinin Partisi\u201d, The Labour Standard<\/em>, 23 Temmuz 1881.<\/p>\n

28) Engels, 1979, s.115.<\/p>\n

Se\u00e7ilmi\u015f Kaynak\u00e7a<\/strong><\/p>\n

– Max Beer, Sosyalizmin ve Sosyal M\u00fccadelelerin Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130stanbul 1965.<\/p>\n

– H. Boockmann, H. Schilling, H. Schulze, M. St\u00fcrmer, Mitten in Europa \u2013 Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Sammlung Siedler, Berlin 1992.<\/p>\n

– Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher, Robert Lee Wollf, 1453\u2019ten Bug\u00fcne D\u00fcnya Tarihi ve \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f Uygarl\u0131k<\/em>, Cem Yay\u0131nevi, \u0130stanbul 1982.<\/p>\n

– Ulrich Br\u00f6ckling, Disiplin \/ Askeri \u0130taat \u00dcretiminin Sosyolojisi ve Tarihi<\/em>, Ayr\u0131nt\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2001.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Burjuva Demokratik Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1975.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131-Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1992.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Engels, Tarihte Zorun Rol\u00fc – Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Kan ve Zul\u00fcm Politikas\u0131 \u00dczerine Bir \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1979.<\/p>\n

– Mary Fulbrook, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n K\u0131sa Tarihi<\/em>, B\u00dc Yay\u0131nevi, \u0130stanbul 2014.<\/p>\n

– Lothar Gall, Bismarck \/ Der weisse Revolution\u00e4r<\/em>, Propyl\u00e4en, Frankfurt\/M-Berlin-Wien 1980.<\/p>\n

– Geschichte des deutschen Parlamentarismus<\/em>, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn 1999.<\/p>\n

– Oscar J. Hammen, Die Roten 48er \/ Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels<\/em>, Athenaion, Frankfurt am Main 1972.<\/p>\n

– Eric Hobsbawm, Devrim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \/ 1789-1848<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2005.<\/p>\n

– Eric Hobsbawm, Sermaye \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \/ 1848-1875<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2005.<\/p>\n

– Harold James, Deutsche Identit\u00e4t, 1770-1990<\/em>, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt\/Main 1991.<\/p>\n

– Stephen J. Lee, Avrupa Tarihinden Kesitler \/ 1789-1980<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi, Ankara 2004.<\/p>\n

– W. H. McNeill, D\u00fcnya Tarihi<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1985.<\/p>\n

– Barrington Moore Jr., Diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn ve Demokrasinin Toplumsal K\u00f6kenleri \/ \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f D\u00fcnyan\u0131n Yarat\u0131lmas\u0131nda Soylunun ve K\u00f6yl\u00fcn\u00fcn Rol\u00fc<\/em>, Verso Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1989.<\/p>\n

– Hans-Joachim Schoeps, Preussen \/ Geschichte eines Staaten – Bilder und Zeugnisse<\/em>, Propyl\u00e4en Verlag, Berlin 1995.<\/p>\n

– Werner Stein (hrsg.), Die wichtingsten Daten der Weltgeschichte \/ Der Kultur Fahrplan<\/em>, Herbig Verlagbuchhandlung, M\u00fcnchen 1998.<\/p>\n

– Friedrich Stieve, Geschichte des Deutshen Volkes<\/em>, Verlag von R. Oldenbourg, M\u00fcnchen und Berlin 1941.<\/p>\n

– H\u00fcner Tuncer, Osmanl\u0131 Devleti ve B\u00fcy\u00fck G\u00fc\u00e7ler (1815-1878)<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2009.<\/p>\n

– Uluslararas\u0131 \u0130li\u015fkiler Tarihi \/ Diplomasi Tarihi<\/em>, 2. cilt, May Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1978.<\/p>\n

– Veit Valentin, Knaurs Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Droemersche Verlagsanstalt Th. Knaur Nachf., M\u00fcnchen-Z\u00fcrich 1960.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Almanya y\u00f6netilemez durumdayd\u0131, toplum yat\u0131\u015fm\u0131yor, istikrar sa\u011flanam\u0131yordu. Bask\u0131, toplumsal canl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 azaltam\u0131yordu. Topluma uygulanan \u015fiddetin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi gerekiyordu. S\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 bekleyen biri vard\u0131 ve program\u0131 da haz\u0131rd\u0131. Kendisine g\u00f6re de, Almanya\u2019ya g\u00f6re de o, tek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fc. B\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahiplerinin temsilcisi Prens Bismarck, apar topar geldi ve parlamentodaki ilk konu\u015fmas\u0131nda hedeflere \u201ckan ve demir\u201dle var\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yledi, muhalefet diye […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":376,"featured_media":25479,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[161,1464,222],"tags":[1617,3263,3264,995],"class_list":["post-25476","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-124-sayi","category-dosya","category-tarih","tag-almanya","tag-bismarck","tag-napoleon","tag-politika"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t