{"id":26660,"date":"2014-05-02T14:25:48","date_gmt":"2014-05-02T11:25:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=26660"},"modified":"2018-06-08T16:49:57","modified_gmt":"2018-06-08T13:49:57","slug":"1830-ve-1848-devrimleri-almanyada-devrim-ve-karsidevrim","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2014\/05\/02\/1830-ve-1848-devrimleri-almanyada-devrim-ve-karsidevrim","title":{"rendered":"1830 ve 1848 Devrimleri, Almanya\u2019da devrim ve kar\u015f\u0131devrim"},"content":{"rendered":"

Avrupa\u2019da 1830 ve 1848 Devrimleri Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l devrimcili\u011finin ilk \u00f6rnekleridir.\u00a0 Ama bu devrimlerin esas \u00f6zelli\u011fi, ayaklanmalara ve devrimlere geni\u015f emek\u00e7i kitlelerin kat\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ve i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 \u00f6nderli\u011finin yolunu a\u00e7mas\u0131d\u0131r.\u00a0 Art\u0131k devrimler \u201cburjuva \u00f6nderli\u011fe\u201d mahk\u00fbm olmayacakt\u0131r.\u00a0 30 ve \u00f6zellikle 48, tarih sahnesine yeni oyuncular \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u00a0 Manifesto\u2019nun bu devrimler d\u00f6neminin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc ve sonucu olmas\u0131 bir raslant\u0131 de\u011fildir.\u00a0 <\/em><\/p>\n

Viyana Kongresi g\u00fcnlerinden ba\u015flayarak, huzursuzluklar gerici ittifaklar\u0131n, gerici ittifaklar bask\u0131lar\u0131n, bask\u0131lar yasaklar\u0131n, yasaklar ayaklanmalar\u0131n, ayaklanmalar devrimlerin, devrimler kar\u015f\u0131devrimlerin nedeni ve\/veya gerek\u00e7esi oldu.<\/em><\/p>\n

Viyana Kongresi ve Almanya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcndemine oturan Alman Birli\u011fi<\/strong><\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n 10\u2019lu y\u0131llar\u0131: Napoleon\u2019un tarih sahnesinden \u00e7ekilmesi, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Rusya\u2019dan, Polonya\u2019dan, Prusya\u2019dan, Avusturya\u2019dan, \u0130talya\u2019dan \u00e7ekilmesi demek oldu. Avrupa, yeni \u00fclkeleri, yeni y\u00f6netimleri, yeni s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131, yeni haritalar\u0131yla yeniden \u015fekillenecek, \u201cAvrupa Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131\u201d tesis edilecekti. 1815\u2019te yap\u0131lan Viyana Kongresi (1), Napoleon sonras\u0131 d\u00f6nemde bunu sa\u011flamak i\u00e7indi.<\/p>\n

Kongre, asl\u0131nda fiili olarak 1806\u2019da i\u015fi bitmi\u015f olan Kutsal Roma Cermen \u0130mparatorlu\u011funa resmen son verdi ve altm\u0131\u015fa yak\u0131n Alman devletini bir araya getirmeyi ama\u00e7layarak \u201cAlman Konfederasyonu\u201dnu (Cermen Konfederasyonu) kurdu. Oysa Prusya, \u201cAlman Birli\u011fi\u201d istiyordu ve kongrenin bunu kabul etmesi i\u00e7in \u00e7ok \u00e7aba harcad\u0131; ama ba\u015fta Avusturya olmak \u00fczere Avrupa devletleri, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n feodal par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcrmesinde kendileri i\u00e7in yarar g\u00f6rd\u00fcklerinden konuya ilgisiz kald\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birli\u011fi sa\u011flanamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, bir merkezi y\u00f6netim de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, hatta ademi merkeziyet\u00e7ilik ve b\u00f6lgecilik her alanda hakimdi. Sorun, o d\u00f6nemde \u00e7ok yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmeyen yerelci ve gelenekselci anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n sonraki d\u00f6nemlerdeki hi\u00e7bir ihtiyac\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131layamaz olmas\u0131nda, hatta ayak ba\u011f\u0131na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesinde ve mutlaka terk edilmek zorunda kal\u0131nmas\u0131nda yat\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019n\u0131n par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu y\u00fczden adeta g\u00fcvence alt\u0131ndayd\u0131. \u201cZor\u201du davet eden nedenler aras\u0131nda bunlar da vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonuna kadar, \u201cAlmanlar\u0131n tevazusu\u201d diyebilece\u011fimiz bir ruh hali, ba\u015fka milletlerin \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kabullenme \u015feklinde s\u00fcregelmi\u015fti. Roma, Fransa ve \u0130ngiltere kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda belirgin olan bu \u201cCermen yetersizli\u011fi\u201d, Fransa ve \u0130ngiltere\u2019nin milli devletlerinin etkinliklerini tarih sahnesine getirmesinden ve bunun anla\u015f\u0131lmaz bir \u015fey olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131ndan sonra Almanlara \u00f6nemli bir \u015fey g\u00f6sterdi, bu \u00f6rnekleri Almanya\u2019n\u0131n da izlemesi gerekiyordu. Milli devlet, varolmak i\u00e7in ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmazd\u0131 art\u0131k. Ba\u015fka milletlere boyun e\u011fmemek i\u00e7in, onlardan geride kalmamak i\u00e7in, bu siyasal \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme bi\u00e7imini \u00f6rnek almak \u015fart gibiydi. Bu bilin\u00e7, emperyal miras\u0131n olumsuz a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 alt\u0131ndaki fazla geni\u015f Avusturya\u2019da de\u011fil, elbette kab\u0131na s\u0131\u011famayan ve aray\u0131\u015f i\u00e7indeki Prusya\u2019da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Say\u0131lar\u0131 otuz dokuzu bulan \u00f6nemli Alman devletlerinin (2) hepsinin i\u00e7inde oldu\u011fu ve onursal ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Avusturya imparatorunun yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cCermen Konfederasyonu\u201dnda inisiyatif Avusturya\u2019dayd\u0131. Zaten, \u201cbirli\u011fi \u00f6nlemeye y\u00f6nelik birlik\u201d \u00f6nerisinin de sahibi Avusturya\u2019yd\u0131. Avusturya, milli devleti, isteyemez, savunamaz, \u00f6n\u00fcne koyamaz ve ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiremezdi. Prusya ve Avusturya milli devlet modeli konusunda anla\u015fam\u0131yorlard\u0131 ve anla\u015famazlard\u0131, ama \u00e7ok iyi anla\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 konular da olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

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1817’de Wartburg \u015fatosunda toplanan gen\u00e7lik \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeleri, siyah-k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131-sar\u0131 renkli bayraklar alt\u0131nd ate\u015fli konu\u015fmalar yapt\u0131lar.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nderli\u011fi tarihsel evrimle uyum i\u00e7indeydi. \u00c7ok \u0131rkl\u0131 heterojen bir imparatorluk gelene\u011fi, federasyon i\u00e7inde yer alacak prensliklerin bireyselliklerine sayg\u0131l\u0131 olmaya Prusya\u2019dan daha yatk\u0131nd\u0131. Ancak di\u011fer ihtiya\u00e7lara cevap verememesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan ya\u015fan\u0131lan s\u00fcrecin ge\u00e7icili\u011fi de ortadayd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011finin y\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc d\u00f6nd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc g\u00fc\u00e7 h\u0131zla Prusya oluyordu. Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n \u201cCermenlikten uzak\u201d olu\u015fu da iyice dikkati \u00e7ekiyordu art\u0131k. Hem kozmopolitizm, \u201cbirli\u011fe\u201d g\u00f6re bir \u015fey de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n

\u201cKutsal \u0130ttifak\u201d, k\u0131tasal bask\u0131 ve Alman gericili\u011fi<\/strong><\/p>\n

Prusya ve Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekti\u011fi, sonradan b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n\u0131n kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cKutsal \u0130ttifak\u201d (gene 1815), siyasal ve dinsel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 her yerde hemen bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131, devrim d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerinin ve milliyet\u00e7i ak\u0131mlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc anda derhal ezilmesini \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Vaat edilen ve haz\u0131rl\u0131klar\u0131 da ilerlemi\u015f anayasa bu y\u00fczden rafa kald\u0131r\u0131lacak, \u0130ttifak\u2019\u0131n gerici etkisi, 1830 Devrimlerinde par\u00e7alanana kadar yaln\u0131z Alman topraklar\u0131nda de\u011fil, b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa\u2019da etkisini g\u00f6sterecekti.<\/p>\n

1807 ve 1811\u2019de topra\u011fa ba\u011fl\u0131 y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklere son verilmi\u015f, k\u00f6yl\u00fcler \u201cazat edilmi\u015f\u201dti ama daha da yoksulla\u015ft\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

1810\u2019da mali ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar kald\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, kilise mallar\u0131na el konmu\u015f, sanayi \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015ftirilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, ordu mevcudunu art\u0131rma yasa\u011f\u0131 (3) i\u015flemez hale getirilmi\u015fti ve bunlar Prusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcndeki ayak ba\u011flar\u0131n\u0131 kald\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, geli\u015fmenin \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

1812\u2019de uygulamaya sokulan E\u015fitlik Kararnamesi, 1816\u2019da y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckten kald\u0131r\u0131lacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

1818\u2019de Prusya\u2019n\u0131n, kendi \u00e7evresindeki yirmi kadar Alman devletiyle aras\u0131ndaki g\u00fcmr\u00fck i\u015flemlerini kald\u0131rmas\u0131 ve d\u0131\u015far\u0131ya kar\u015f\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131tlamalar koymas\u0131yla yerli \u00fcretimi ve i\u00e7 piyasay\u0131 g\u00f6zeten \u201cG\u00fcmr\u00fck Duvarlar\u0131\u201d uygulamas\u0131 ba\u015flad\u0131. B\u00f6ylece milli birlik yolunda bir ad\u0131m daha at\u0131lm\u0131\u015f oluyordu.<\/p>\n

1815\u2019ten sonra kurulan i\u015flevsiz Frankfurt Parlamentosu Avusturya a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 alt\u0131ndayd\u0131. 18<\/p>\n

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1815’te yap\u0131lan Viyana Kongresi’nde Napoleon sonras\u0131 d\u00f6nemde Avrupa’n\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 yeniden \u00e7izildi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1824\u2019te Berlin 150 bin n\u00fcfusuyla ve c\u0131l\u0131z sanayisiyle hen\u00fcz bir varl\u0131k g\u00f6steremiyordu ama Prusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fc her ge\u00e7en g\u00fcn daha fazla a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131yordu. 1848\u2019de kurulan Frankfurt Parlamentosu, 1849\u2019da Prusya politikalar\u0131n\u0131n alt\u0131nda ezilecek, Alman topraklar\u0131nda Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n belirleyicili\u011fi, yerini yava\u015f yava\u015f Prusya a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131na b\u0131rakmak zorunda kalacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bu arada, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k ve birlik isteklerinin nas\u0131l bi\u00e7imlendi\u011fi ve nas\u0131l eylem tarzlar\u0131 geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi de dikkate de\u011fer \u00f6zellikler g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n

1817\u2019de gen\u00e7lik \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeleri Wartburg \u015fatosunda topland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda (4), siyah-k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131-sar\u0131 renkli bayraklar alt\u0131nda (5) ate\u015fli konu\u015fmalar yapt\u0131lar ve Prusya gericili\u011fini ve militarizmini simgeleyen Prusya ordusunun subay \u00fcniformas\u0131n\u0131 ve daha ba\u015fka gericilik sembollerini yakmakla birlikte, \u00e7ok sonralar\u0131 Hitler\u2019in yapaca\u011f\u0131 t\u00fcrden bir eylemi de ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdiler. Birlik ve ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 yazarlar\u0131n yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerinin eserlerinin \u00f6rneklerini ve onlar\u0131 sembolize eden k\u00e2\u011f\u0131tlar\u0131-belgeleri, \u201cCermenlik ad\u0131na\u201d b\u00fcy\u00fck bir co\u015fkuyla tutu\u015fturdular. (6)<\/p>\n

Eylemin sahibi Burschenschaften adl\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenci \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeleri, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k\u00e7\u0131l\u0131ktan kom\u015fulara d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011fa, vatan savunmas\u0131ndan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa, cumhuriyet\u00e7ilikten sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011fa, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fckten yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011fa, Almanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 savunmaktan Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na savruluyordu.<\/p>\n

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\u00d6\u011frenci \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeleri, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zc\u0131l\u0131ktan kom\u015fulara d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011fa, vatan savunmas\u0131ndan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa, cumhuriyet\u00e7ilikten sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011fa, \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fckyen yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131a, Almanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 savunmaktan Yahudi d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na savruluyordu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Napoleon\u2019un, yeni y\u00fckselen milliyet\u00e7i ak\u0131mdan \u00e7ok geleneksel y\u00f6netici g\u00fc\u00e7ler taraf\u0131ndan yenilgiye u\u011frat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131, bu d\u00f6nemde demokratik hi\u00e7bir geli\u015fme olmamas\u0131n\u0131n, halk\u0131n hi\u00e7bir bak\u0131mdan dikkate al\u0131nmamas\u0131n\u0131n nedeniydi. Prusya ve Avusturya ve elbette di\u011fer b\u00fct\u00fcn prenslikler, en ba\u015fta Hannover, Mecklenburg, Bavyera, W\u00fcrttemberg, Baden, Saksonya vb, Fransa\u2019y\u0131 Almanya\u2019dan atmak konusundaki ortak bilin\u00e7leri ve tutumlar\u0131yla \u201cba\u015far\u0131l\u0131\u201d olmu\u015flard\u0131. Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00fc\u00e7leri de Fransa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 onlar\u0131n \u201cyan\u0131na\u201d gelmi\u015fti. Bu bak\u0131mdan \u015fanslar\u0131 yaver gitmi\u015fti, ama halk kitleleri devre d\u0131\u015f\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. H\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar gene ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde h\u00fck\u00fcmdard\u0131lar. Y\u00f6netimleri i\u00e7in tehlikeli olabilece\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesiyle b\u00fct\u00fcn y\u00f6netimler milliyet\u00e7ilik e\u011filimlerine ihtiyatla yakla\u015f\u0131yor, milliyet\u00e7ilikten adeta kayg\u0131 duyuyor ve bunlardan uzak durmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Eylemcilerin e\u011filimleri esas olarak monar\u015fi kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 halde kraliyeti ve b\u00fct\u00fcn prensleri \u00fcrk\u00fctt\u00fc. Sonunda e\u011filimlerin demokratik taleplere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015febilece\u011finden korktular. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc s\u00f6z konusu e\u011filimler \u201cfazla\u201d milliciydi ve milliyet\u00e7ilik muhalefet gibiydi. Kitleleri sarabilir, kontrol edilemez hale gelebilirdi. Ayr\u0131ca \u201cevrensel burjuva milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi\u201dnden yana olmak \u201cAlman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi\u201dni i\u00e7ermiyor gibiydi. \u201cAlman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi\u201dne bir \u015fey denemezdi, denilemezdi, denilmemeliydi ama \u201ck\u00f6k\u00fc d\u0131\u015far\u0131da ak\u0131mlar\u201d da tasvip edilemezdi! \u201cMilli\u201d \u00e7\u0131karlar s\u00f6z konusuydu ve Frans\u0131z Devriminin \u201cmilli \u00e7\u0131karlar\u201d\u0131 ba\u015fka t\u00fcrl\u00fcyd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

\u0130ki b\u00fcy\u00fck Alman devleti Avusturya ve Prusya ile di\u011fer prenslikler 1819\u2019da Karlsbad\u2019da bir araya gelerek ortak tutum karar\u0131 ald\u0131lar, \u201ceski rejime\u201de kar\u015f\u0131 olan liberal ak\u0131mlarla birlikte m\u00fccadele edeceklerdi. Avrupa \u00e7ap\u0131nda etkili olmu\u015f Kutsal \u0130ttifak\u2019\u0131 \u201cAlmanya co\u011frafyas\u0131na \u00f6zel\u201d hale getirdiler. Beraberli\u011fe raz\u0131 ettikleri liberalleri uyu\u015fturdular ve etkisizle\u015ftirdiler.<\/p>\n

B\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6\u011frenci \u00f6rg\u00fctleri kapat\u0131ld\u0131, \u00fcniversiteler takibe al\u0131nd\u0131, \u00f6nderler yakaland\u0131, yay\u0131nlar sans\u00fcre tabi tutuldu, \u201c3-renk\u201d yasakland\u0131. Devlet ter\u00f6r\u00fc binlerce \u00f6\u011frenciyi ve on binlerce muhalif ayd\u0131n ve i\u015f\u00e7iyi \u00e7ok uzun y\u0131llar hapislerde yat\u0131rd\u0131.<\/p>\n

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Alman romantizminin m\u00fczikteki \u00f6nemli ad\u0131 Robert Schumann(1810-1856) devrim kar\u015ft\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na tepki g\u00f6sterdi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Siyasal gericile\u015fme, toplumsal geli\u015fmenin \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc t\u0131kad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, moderniteye kar\u015f\u0131 da inan\u0131lmaz tutuculuklar yaratt\u0131. \u0130deolojik saplant\u0131lar y\u00fcz\u00fcnden teknik geli\u015fmelere de kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131l\u0131yordu. Avrupa\u2019daki b\u00fct\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fck kentlerde 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonunda geceleri sokaklar ayd\u0131nlat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bulunuyordu ama bunu hen\u00fcz ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirememi\u015f Almanya, durumu pek de\u011fi\u015ftirecek gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnm\u00fcyordu. 1819 y\u0131l\u0131n\u0131n 28 mart\u0131nda K\u00f6lnische Zeitung<\/em> adl\u0131 etkili gazete sokaklar\u0131n gaz lambalar\u0131yla ayd\u0131nlat\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n ideolojik nedenlerle yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu, \u201cinsanlar taraf\u0131ndan tanr\u0131sal d\u00fczenin bozulmamas\u0131, karanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n de\u011fi\u015ftirilmemesi\u201d gerekti\u011fini yazabilmi\u015fti. (7)<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z Devriminden Almanya\u2019ya ka\u00e7an Frans\u0131z soylululu\u011fu, olumsuz geli\u015fmelere ve gericile\u015fmeye her bak\u0131mdan katk\u0131da bulundu. En ba\u015f\u0131nda, k\u00f6ken ayr\u0131m\u0131na dayanan aristokratik s\u0131n\u0131fsal anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla Almanya\u2019ya geldikleri i\u00e7in, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n k\u00f6kene ba\u011fl\u0131 ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na, etnik anlay\u0131\u015fl\u0131 d\u0131\u015flamac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve Fransa aleyhtarl\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde g\u00fc\u00e7 kazand\u0131rd\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

Cermen olmak ve stat\u00fcko \u00e7ok \u00f6nemliydi. Yabanc\u0131 olmak ve muhalefet etmek yak\u0131yordu. Fransa ve Frans\u0131zlar d\u00fc\u015fmand\u0131, devrim ve liberalizm tehlikeliydi.<\/p>\n

Aniden Yahudilerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da hat\u0131rland\u0131. Viyana Konferans\u0131n\u0131n Prusya\u2019ya kazand\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 topraklarda bulunan \u00f6nemli bir Yahudi n\u00fcfusu, bu hat\u0131rlamay\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, Napoleon\u2019un Prusya\u2019daki \u201cYahudi operasyonu\u201d (8) bu hat\u0131rlamay\u0131 zorunlu k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu tarihten sonra Yahudilere kar\u015f\u0131 tutum, ki\u015fisel g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcmler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda her zaman bir devlet politikas\u0131 olarak ya\u015fanacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Geli\u015fmeleri kayg\u0131yla izleyenler de vard\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Heinrich Heine, bu d\u00f6nemin hazin g\u00fcl\u00fcn\u00e7l\u00fc\u011f\u00fc konusunda \u015f\u00f6yle diyordu: \u201cFrans\u0131z, Yahudi veya Slav k\u00f6kenli herkes s\u00fcrg\u00fcne mahkum ediliyordu. \u2026T\u00f6ton soytar\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 yaz\u0131 yazan herkes \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclece\u011fine emin olabilirdi.\u201d<\/p>\n

Zaten Schiller ta ne zaman milletle\u015fmenin \u00fczerinde y\u00fckseldi\u011fi zemine ilk dikkat \u00e7ekenlerden biri olmu\u015ftu. \u201cAlmanlar; milliyet\u00e7ilik pe\u015finde ko\u015faca\u011f\u0131n\u0131za kendinizi \u00f6zg\u00fcr insanlar olarak e\u011fitmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmal\u0131s\u0131n\u0131z.\u201d<\/p>\n

Alman romantizminin m\u00fczikteki \u00f6nemli ad\u0131 Robert Schumann (1810-1856), devrim kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve Frans\u0131z d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na tepkisini \u201cgizli bir \u015fekilde\u201d g\u00f6sterir. Son derece pop\u00fcler olan \u201cKarnaval \u015eark\u0131lar\u0131\u201dna, besteleri notaya ge\u00e7irirken na\u011fmeleri bile yasakl\u0131 Marseillese<\/em>\u2019in ezgilerinden soku\u015fturmalar yapar. (9)<\/p>\n

Halk i\u00e7in m\u00fczik yapan, halk\u0131n duygular\u0131na \u00f6nem veren Alman Lied\u2019lerinin yarat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 besteci Franz Schubert (1797-1828), d\u00f6neminin en \u00f6nemli romanti\u011fi oldu\u011fu, se\u00e7kine ve e\u011fitimliye hitap eden klasisizmden uzakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131, edebiyat\u0131 halka yakla\u015ft\u0131rmada bir i\u015flev g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc halde, s\u0131radan ve ya\u015fayan insan\u0131 konu edindi\u011fi i\u00e7in ele\u015ftiriye u\u011fruyor, bask\u0131lara maruz kal\u0131yordu. Ayr\u0131ca b\u00fcy\u00fck bir kabahati daha vard\u0131; \u201cYahudi\u201d, \u201cbozguncu\u201d, \u201cAlman d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131\u201d Heine\u2019nin \u015fiirlerini besteliyordu. Daha da k\u00f6t\u00fc olan, g\u00fcftesi Heine\u2019nin olan bu bestelerin her yere yay\u0131lmas\u0131, herkesin dilinde dola\u015fmas\u0131yd\u0131. Vokal m\u00fczi\u011fin bu b\u00fcy\u00fck ustas\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 ve \u00f6nemli bir sahne yap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n olmamas\u0131, sans\u00fcr, engelleme ve ezme politikas\u0131 sonucu olmu\u015ftur. (10)<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z Devriminin ilkelerine ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve Napoleon\u2019a hayranl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinen Hegel\u2019in, bu geli\u015fmeler s\u00fcrecinde Berlin \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f \u201cTarihselci Okul\u201d ad\u0131 alt\u0131nda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015f Hegelci gelenek\u00e7ilerin, bu gerici-tutucular\u0131 dengeleyebilmesi olanakl\u0131 de\u011fildi ama umut oradayd\u0131. Hegel\u2019in 1818\u2019de Berlin\u2019e davet edilmesinin hi\u00e7bir yarar\u0131 olmad\u0131. Yaln\u0131z e\u011fitim kurumlar\u0131 de\u011fil b\u00fcrokrasi de Hegelciler ile \u201cTarihselciler\u201d aras\u0131nda b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, ama ya\u015fanan art\u0131k siyasal bir ayr\u0131\u015fmayd\u0131 ve Hegelcilerin pek bir \u015fans\u0131 kalmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. (11)<\/p>\n

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1830’da Fransa’dan gelen devrim dalgas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda gen\u00e7 bir delikanl\u0131 olan \u00fcnl\u00fc yazar Georg B\u00fcchner “Hessen K\u00f6yl\u00fcleine Bildiri” adl\u0131 bir metin kaleme alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Almanya\u2019da ilk kez, liberaller, \u00f6\u011frenciler, ayd\u0131nlar ve orta s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n geni\u015f kesimleri aras\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir duygusal ve siyasal yak\u0131nl\u0131k ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, ama \u00f6n\u00fcndeki engelleri a\u015famam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ba\u015fta \u00f6\u011frenciler, sonra i\u015f\u00e7iler ve ayd\u0131nlar olmak \u00fczere b\u00fct\u00fcn toplum sindirildi.<\/p>\n

Yeni bir devrime do\u011fru<\/strong><\/p>\n

Bu d\u00f6nemde Almanya\u2019n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck on kentinin toplam n\u00fcfusu, \u0130ngiltere ya da Fransa ba\u015fkentlerinin n\u00fcfusunu ancak ge\u00e7ebiliyordu. Halk\u0131n y\u00fczde 80\u2019i k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde da\u011f\u0131n\u0131k olarak ya\u015famaktayd\u0131. Berlin, \u00e7evresindeki topraklar\u0131 i\u015fleten \u00e7iftliklerin merkezi durumundayd\u0131. Bunlar, Almanya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00f6rece gerili\u011finin g\u00f6stergeleri gibiydi.<\/p>\n

Bu arada (20\u2019li y\u0131llar) Fransa\u2019da Eski Rejime d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015f, Devrimden ka\u00e7an soylular geri d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015f, m\u00fclklerine, unvanlar\u0131na, haklar\u0131na ve ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131na tekrar kavu\u015fmu\u015f, Devrimde giyotine g\u00f6nderilmi\u015f kral\u0131n 1791\u2019de Avusturya\u2019ya ka\u00e7an karde\u015fleri s\u0131rayla tahta oturtulmu\u015f (\u00f6nce Louis, bir s\u00fcre sonra \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u00fczerine Charles-Philippe), halka ve liberallere bask\u0131lar artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunlar\u0131n sonucu olarak 1827 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015flayan direni\u015fler, ayaklanmalara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr ve Kral X. Charles\u2019\u0131n taht\u0131 elinden al\u0131n\u0131r ve yurt d\u0131\u015f\u0131na s\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bourbon Hanedan\u0131 tekrar her \u015feyini kaybetmi\u015ftir. Bir \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fme d\u00f6nemi ya\u015fanmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

1830\u2019da Fransa\u2019dan gelen bu b\u00fcy\u00fck devrim dalgas\u0131yla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015facaklar\u0131ndan kayg\u0131land\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in Alman prensler liberal \u00f6zellikler ta\u015f\u0131yan anayasalar\u0131 hemen y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011fe koyarlar. Buna ra\u011fmen 1830 Devrimi etkisini Almanya\u2019da g\u00f6sterecek, bir\u00e7ok yerde ayaklanmalar olacakt\u0131r. Saksonya, Hannover, Hessen ve ba\u015fka yerlerde y\u00f6neticiler zor kabullenilecek istekleri hem bast\u0131rmaya, hem de yat\u0131\u015ft\u0131rarak s\u00f6nd\u00fcrmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n

1832\u2019de Almanya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinin a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 koydu\u011fu Hambach toplant\u0131s\u0131 yap\u0131ld\u0131. Devrim sempatizan\u0131 25-30 bin ki\u015fi Ren Nehri k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131nda bir araya geldi. Toplant\u0131ya hakim olan halk egemenli\u011fi ve Cumhuriyet istekleri b\u00fct\u00fcn Almanya\u2019da yank\u0131lar uyand\u0131rd\u0131. Ancak \u00f6nderlik, program yoksunlu\u011fu ve kendini yetkisiz g\u00f6rmek y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, \u015fenlik \u015feklinde yap\u0131lan toplant\u0131n\u0131n gelece\u011fini belirsizli\u011fe mahkum etti ve \u00f6nemli f\u0131rsatlar ka\u00e7\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

1833\u2019te Frankfurt\u2019ta yap\u0131lan ama ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131kla sonu\u00e7lanan ve kanl\u0131 bir \u015fekilde bast\u0131r\u0131lan h\u00fck\u00fcmet darbesi giri\u015fimi, her \u015feye ra\u011fmen \u00e7e\u015fitli kesimlerin yeniden cesaretlenmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Federal meclis da\u011f\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, Cumhuriyet ilan edilmi\u015fti. Ger\u00e7ekle\u015femeyen ve bast\u0131r\u0131lan talepler art\u0131k her yerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu. Gizli yay\u0131nlar, giderek \u00e7e\u015fitlenen ve \u00e7o\u011falan bildiriler her taraf\u0131 sard\u0131. \u0130\u00e7inde \u201ccumhuriyet\u201d, \u201cvergi\u201d, \u201cprens\u201d gibi maddeler bulunan ve kitlelerin soru ve aray\u0131\u015flar\u0131na yan\u0131t vermek i\u00e7in haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015f \u201cK\u00f6yl\u00fcler \u0130\u00e7in S\u00f6zl\u00fck\u201d \u00e7ok ilgi g\u00f6rd\u00fc. O g\u00fcnlerde gen\u00e7 delikanl\u0131 olan \u00fcnl\u00fc yazar Georg B\u00fcchner\u2019in kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cHessen K\u00f6yl\u00fclerine Bildiri\u201d (12), gene bu co\u015fkulu d\u00f6nemin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcyd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

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1848’de Berlin Alevander Platz’da kurulan barikatlar<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Devrimci dalga biraz geri \u00e7ekilince ve b\u00fct\u00fcn konfederasyon prensleri korkuyu \u00fcstlerinden at\u0131nca, Avusturya \u015fans\u00f6lyesi Metternich\u2019in y\u00f6nlendiricili\u011finde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir bask\u0131 d\u00f6nemi ba\u015flad\u0131. Meclislerin yetkileri k\u0131s\u0131tland\u0131, polisin yetkileri art\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131, sans\u00fcr kat\u0131 olarak uygulanmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Metternich\u2019in a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 artarken, soylular\u0131n ve toprak beylerinin sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011f\u0131 buna paralel olarak y\u00fckseliyordu.<\/p>\n

Prusya Kral\u0131 III. Friedrich\u2019in Frans\u0131z Devriminin ve Napoleon\u2019un bask\u0131s\u0131 alt\u0131nda verdi\u011fi anayasa s\u00f6z\u00fcnden d\u00f6nmesinden sonra yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k hayat\u0131ndaki bask\u0131 \u00f6ylesine artt\u0131 ki, yirmi formadan az olan her \u015fey sans\u00fcrden ge\u00e7mek zorundayd\u0131. Yirmi formadan fazlas\u0131 fazla \u00f6nemsenmiyordu; yirmi formadan kal\u0131n olan kitaplar, \u201ctehlikeli\u201d kitaplardan de\u011fildi. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc kal\u0131n kitaplar, birincisi, paras\u0131 fazla olaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, ikincisi, halk kal\u0131nca kitaplar\u0131 edinse bile okumaya katlanamayaca\u011f\u0131 ve sonunu getiremeyece\u011fi i\u00e7in fazla yay\u0131lamaz, fazla okunamaz ve etkili olamazd\u0131. Bu y\u00fczden o d\u00f6nem Almanya\u2019s\u0131nda muhalif ayd\u0131nlar, yazarlar, \u015fairler kitaplar\u0131n\u0131 hep yirmi forman\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde kal\u0131n kitaplar olarak yay\u0131mlamak zorunda kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Bunun i\u00e7in yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n bir\u00e7o\u011fu birle\u015ftirilerek bir kitapta toplanmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Hatta, yazd\u0131klar\u0131 yetmezse, yirmi formaya varabilmek i\u00e7in yazarlar birbirlerinden (\u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7) ekler al\u0131p, kitaplar\u0131n\u0131 \u015fi\u015firirlerdi. Muhalefetin yay\u0131nevi haline gelen Campe (bug\u00fcn de faaliyetine devam etmektedir), sans\u00fcr\u00fc atlatabilmek ve a\u015fabilmek i\u00e7in s\u00fcrekli yeni yollar aramaktayd\u0131. Sans\u00fcr a\u015f\u0131lamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 durumlarda sans\u00fcrc\u00fclerin sak\u0131ncal\u0131 buldu\u011fu b\u00f6l\u00fcmler \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131l\u0131yor, ancak \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131lan yerler, bazen sayfalarca bo\u015f b\u0131rak\u0131l\u0131yordu. B\u00f6ylece yay\u0131mlanan eserin sans\u00fcre u\u011frayarak t\u0131rpanlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 okuyucu taraf\u0131ndan g\u00f6r\u00fclebiliyordu. Bir s\u00fcre sonra sayfalar\u0131n bo\u015f b\u0131rak\u0131lmas\u0131 da yasaklanacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Belirli s\u00f6zc\u00fckler sans\u00fcr kurullar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan yasaklanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve elenmekteydi. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck\u201d bunlar aras\u0131ndayd\u0131. Heine, \u201cen ak\u0131ll\u0131, en kudretli halk olan biz Almanlar, ate\u015fli silahla sa\u011fa sola sald\u0131rana k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir para cezas\u0131 veririz, ama bir gazetede \u2018e\u015fim \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck kadar g\u00fczel bir \u00e7ocuk do\u011furdu\u2019 diye ilan \u00e7\u0131kartamay\u0131z\u201d diyordu.<\/p>\n

Bir klasik olarak Wilhelm Tell<\/em>, \u015fa\u015fk\u0131nl\u0131k uyand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 ve a\u00e7\u0131klanamaz bir \u015fekilde yasakland\u0131.<\/p>\n

Yazarlar\u0131n\u0131 hapse mahkum ettiren romanlar yay\u0131mland\u0131. Sorun, yaz\u0131lanlar\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131t olmas\u0131ndan ve sertli\u011finden de\u011fil, bask\u0131n\u0131n hedefsizli\u011finden ve \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden kaynaklan\u0131yordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Gutzkow\u2019un (13) bir roman\u0131n\u0131n kahraman\u0131 gen\u00e7 kad\u0131n dinsel inanc\u0131n\u0131 se\u00e7mekten ba\u015fka bir \u015fey yapmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ama yazar, hapiste \u00e7ok kalmamakla birlikte, \u00f6m\u00fcr boyu kalebentli\u011fe mahkum edildi.<\/p>\n

D\u00f6nemin \u00f6nemli ve sayg\u0131n yazar\u0131 E.T.A. Hoffmann (Ernst Theodor Amadeus, 1776-1822) tarihsel romanlar yazmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen son romanlar\u0131yla kovu\u015fturmaya u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Yasaklanan \u015fiir kitaplar\u0131ndaki \u015fiirler besteleniyor, sans\u00fcrden ge\u00e7emeyen \u00f6yk\u00fcler toplant\u0131larda okunuyor, kitap olarak halk\u0131n eline ge\u00e7emeyen eserler s\u00f6zl\u00fc olarak yay\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Bask\u0131lar, bildirimsiz ve yasal olmayan bir yay\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131k sekt\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na da yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Gizlice bas\u0131lan kitaplar el alt\u0131ndan da\u011f\u0131t\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

1834\u2019te Prusya taraf\u0131ndan Alman devletlerine dayat\u0131lan ve ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011finde 30 milyon insan\u0131 kapsayan \u201cG\u00fcmr\u00fck Birli\u011fi\u201d (Zollverein), bir ticaret birli\u011fiydi, ticari olarak yeterli oldu\u011fu da s\u00f6ylenemezdi, ama sonu\u00e7ta Alman birli\u011finin temeli oldu ve \u00e7ok yararl\u0131 bir rol oynad\u0131. Ortak para ve ortak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcler, birli\u011fe giden yolu daha da sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yor ve geni\u015fletiyordu.<\/p>\n

1834 G\u00fcmr\u00fck Birli\u011fi asl\u0131nda Alman Birli\u011finin temeli olmak yan\u0131nda, hatta ondan \u00e7ok, Prusya Maliye Bakan\u0131 Motz\u2019un 1829\u2019daki memorandumunda a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, zengin ve b\u00fcy\u00fck Bavyera\u2019y\u0131 Avusturya\u2019dan kopar\u0131p Prusya politikas\u0131na ba\u011flaman\u0131n arac\u0131yd\u0131. Avusturya, G\u00fcmr\u00fck Birli\u011fiyle d\u0131\u015flanm\u0131\u015f ve etkisizle\u015ftirilmi\u015fti. Prusya i\u00e7in Avusturya rakip oldu\u011fundan istenmiyordu ama Bavyera Cermen k\u00f6kenli olmamakla birlikte hayati \u00f6nemdeydi.<\/p>\n

Prusya\u2019n\u0131n kat\u0131 bir \u015fekilde uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 korumac\u0131l\u0131k, k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra Avusturya\u2019da biraz gev\u015fek olmakla birlikte benzer \u015fekillerde uygulanmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Ayakta kalmak i\u00e7in mecburdular.<\/p>\n

1835 y\u0131l\u0131nda Almanya\u2019da demiryollar\u0131 yap\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131.<\/p>\n

B\u00f6lgeler ve prenslikler aras\u0131nda \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma, rekabet s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda aniden t\u0131rman\u0131yordu. Birbirlerine zarar vermeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor, adeta birbirlerini yok etmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. 1841\u2019de Hessen h\u00fck\u00fcmeti Pfalz h\u00fck\u00fcmetini saf d\u0131\u015f\u0131 etmek i\u00e7in Mainz\u2019\u0131n liman\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015fla dolduruvermi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Birbirini tamamlayan baz\u0131 hamleler geli\u015fmenin \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131yordu, ama halk\u0131n durumunu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen yoktu. Uygulamalar\u0131n sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131y\u0131 yeni hamlelere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcren Prusya, kafas\u0131n\u0131 kald\u0131rmayan bir i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 istiyordu, itiraz olmas\u0131n istiyordu, muhalefet denilen \u015fey ise geli\u015fmeyi \u00f6nleyen oyundan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildi. Ayd\u0131nlar\u0131n m\u00fcdahale haklar\u0131 falan olamazd\u0131. Bu anlay\u0131\u015flar bask\u0131c\u0131 ve zorlay\u0131c\u0131 olmak d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki b\u00fct\u00fcn yollar\u0131 kapat\u0131yordu. Aralar\u0131nda Heine, Marx, Ruge ve Bernays\u2019\u0131n da oldu\u011fu bir derginin (Deutsch-franz\u00f6sische Jahrb\u00fccher \/ Alman-Frans\u0131z Y\u0131ll\u0131klar\u0131<\/em>) yazarlar\u0131 i\u00e7in tutuklama ve s\u0131n\u0131r d\u0131\u015f\u0131 etme kararlar\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131 (1844).<\/p>\n

Almanya i\u015f\u00e7i hareketlerinde \u00f6nemli bir yeri olan 1844 Silezya-Bohemya ayaklanmalar\u0131, Almanya demokrasi tarihinde de ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 bir yere sahiptir. \u00a04 Haziran 1844\u2019te Silezya\u2019da dokumac\u0131lar ayaklanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ayaklanma kanla bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Heine\u2019nin \u201cSilezya Dokumac\u0131lar\u0131\u201d adl\u0131 \u015fiiri y\u00fczlerce davaya konu olmu\u015f, \u00fczerinde \u015fiir yakalanan y\u00fczlerce insan zindanlara at\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

1848 Devrimleri, Almanya\u2019da devrim ve kar\u015f\u0131devrim<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cAlmanya\u2019da tek se\u00e7enek \u015f\u00f6yle: ulusal ekonomi ya da \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyetin ulus \u00fczerindeki egemenli\u011fi.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

Karl Marx<\/p>\n

\u0130talya\u2019dan ba\u015flayan, Paris\u2019te doru\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kan (14) ve b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 saran 1848 Devrimleri (22-24 \u015eubat Paris, 11-13 Mart Viyana, 17-18 Mart Berlin) (15), Katolik Avusturya\u2019ya, ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 olan bir ayaklanmayla (Viyana Ayaklanmas\u0131) geldi. Metternich h\u00fck\u00fcmeti d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. (16) M\u00fcnih ba\u015fkentli Bavyera Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6yle sars\u0131ld\u0131 ki kral I. Ludwig, taht\u0131n\u0131 o\u011fluna b\u0131rakarak \u00e7ekildi.<\/p>\n

Devrimler Protestan kuzeyi ise alt\u00fcst etti. Berlin ayaklanmalar\u0131nda, Kral IV. Friedrich Wilhelm\u2019in halk\u0131n fazla \u00fcst\u00fcne gidilmemesi ve barikatlar\u0131n yak\u0131larak y\u0131k\u0131lmamas\u0131 talebi ve uyar\u0131s\u0131na ra\u011fmen, \u00e7o\u011fu i\u015f\u00e7i 300\u2019den fazla insan \u00f6ld\u00fc. Olaylar b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fc ve kral, \u201cPrusya\u2019n\u0131n Almanya oldu\u011fu\u201dnu kabul etmek dahil b\u00fct\u00fcn talepleri yerine getirmek zorunda kald\u0131. Prusya i\u00e7in kurucu meclis bile toplad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Konfederasyon devletlerinin hemen hemen hepsinde ayaklanmalar patlak verdi.<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019dan gelmekle birlikte 1830 ve 1848 Devrimleri Alman toplumunda olumsuz kar\u015f\u0131lanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck etkiler yapt\u0131; \u00f6zellikle 1848, Almanya\u2019da da tam bir \u201cdevrim\u201d oldu. Y\u00f6neticiler 1789\u2019dan sonra oldu\u011fu gibi gene kar\u015f\u0131devrimciydi, ancak bu sefer \u201cdevrimler\u201d halk aras\u0131nda olumsuz g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fcyor, itici bulunmuyordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Wiesbaden halk\u0131n\u0131n \u201cNassau Deklarasyonu\u201dnda, 48 Devrimi i\u00e7in, devrim \u201cAvrupa\u2019y\u0131 sarst\u0131, \u015fimdi de Almanya\u2019n\u0131n kap\u0131s\u0131na dayand\u0131\u201d \u015feklinde bir ifade vard\u0131 ve bu \u2018iyi ki dayand\u0131\u2019 anlam\u0131na geliyordu.<\/p>\n

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18 May\u0131s 1848’de \u00f6zg\u00fcr ve birle\u015fik bir Almanya kurmak amac\u0131yla Frankfurt Ulusal Meclisi kuruldu. Meclis 1 y\u0131l sonra da\u011f\u0131ld\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Alman toplumunun tutumu, Fransa\u2019dan gelse bile baz\u0131 \u015feyleri art\u0131k benimsemekti. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc, birincisi, bu son \u201cFrans\u0131z\u201d devrimleri (1830 ve 1848), Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n Almanlara \u201csald\u0131r\u0131s\u0131\u201d yollu bir izlenimi uyand\u0131rmaktan \u00e7ok uzakt\u0131, ve 1789\u2019da oldu\u011fu gibi, Almanya\u2019da halk aras\u0131nda bu devrimlerin kendilerine (Almanya\u2019ya ve Almanlara) y\u00f6neldi\u011fi konusunda bir tedirginli\u011fe yol a\u00e7m\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu devrimlerin Fransa\u2019da hedef ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 soylu s\u0131n\u0131flar, 1789\u2019da oldu\u011fu gibi, art\u0131k (yaln\u0131z) \u201cCermen k\u00f6kenli\u201d de\u011fildi, yani bu devrimler \u201cCermen d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131\u201d, \u201cAlman kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131\u201d olarak de\u011ferlendirilmiyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u0130kincisi, art\u0131k Almanya\u2019da Frans\u0131z Devrimi d\u00f6neminde ve sonras\u0131nda do\u011fmu\u015f devrimci bir ayd\u0131n ku\u015fak vard\u0131. Felsefede, sanatta, siyasette ve her alanda kendini g\u00f6steren, ak\u0131mlar yaratan bu devrimci ku\u015fak, yaln\u0131z Almanya s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde de\u011fil, y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda d\u00fcnya \u00e7ap\u0131nda etkili olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc, Almanya\u2019da devreye i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 ve yoksullar girmi\u015fti ve bu ezilen kesimler siyaset sahnesinde art\u0131k boy g\u00f6steriyorlard\u0131. 18 Mart Berlin Ayaklanmas\u0131nda (1848) \u00f6len 300 kurban\u0131n i\u00e7inde e\u011fitimliler 15, zanaatkarlar yaln\u0131zca 30 ki\u015fiydi. G\u00f6sterileri devrime d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrme g\u00fcc\u00fc, kat\u0131lanlar\u0131n a\u00e7 ve yoksul olmalar\u0131ndan ileri geliyordu.<\/p>\n

Almanya\u2019da halk\u0131n patlaman\u0131n e\u015fi\u011finde oldu\u011funu g\u00f6ren ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen azd\u0131 ama n\u00fcfusun yar\u0131s\u0131ndan fazlas\u0131 k\u0131rk ya\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6remiyordu. 1845-47\u2019deki tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnlerinde g\u00f6r\u00fclen hastal\u0131k ve verimsizlik fiyat art\u0131\u015flar\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnleri, fiyatlar\u0131n halk\u0131n al\u0131m g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00fcst\u00fcne y\u00fckseldi\u011finden al\u0131nam\u0131yordu. \u00d6zellikle patates \u00fcretiminin hastal\u0131k y\u00fcz\u00fcnden o y\u0131llarda olmamas\u0131 k\u0131tl\u0131k ve a\u00e7l\u0131k \u00f6l\u00fcmlerinin b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkeyi sarmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ayr\u0131ca Devrim, 1847 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ekonomik bunal\u0131m\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcne gelmi\u015fti. Bunal\u0131mlar\u0131n ve Almanya\u2019n\u0131n kendisini toplayamamas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni art\u0131k herkes taraf\u0131ndan Almanya\u2019n\u0131n da\u011f\u0131n\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ba\u011flan\u0131yordu. Bu y\u00fczden Almanya toparlanmal\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ve art\u0131k Almanya\u2019da konusu \u201cbirlik\u201d olan bir \u201cAlmanya Sorunu\u201d vard\u0131. Birlik sa\u011flanmadan hi\u00e7bir sorun \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclemeyecek, hi\u00e7bir geli\u015fme olamayacakt\u0131. Tarih\u00e7i Hobsbawm\u2019\u0131n y\u00fcz y\u0131l sonra ifade edece\u011fi bu p\u00fcf noktay\u0131, Almanlar, milletlerin, \u201ctoplumun \u00f6l\u00e7e\u011fini geni\u015flettikleri \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde tarihsel evrimle uyum i\u00e7inde\u201d olabileceklerini hissetmi\u015flerdi. (17)<\/p>\n

\"\"
1848 Berlin barikat sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren bir ba\u015fka \u00e7izim<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

18 May\u0131s 1848 tarihinde \u00f6zg\u00fcr ve birle\u015fik bir Almanya kurmak amac\u0131yla Frankfurt Ulusal Meclisi (Frankfurter Nationalversammlung) kuruldu. Avusturya, ancak, Alman olmayan b\u00f6lgeleri d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda olmak \u015fart\u0131yla \u201cBirlik\u201dte yer alabilecekti.<\/p>\n

Meclis, \u00f6ncelikli olarak, \u201cBirle\u015fik Almanya\u201dn\u0131n, \u2018Avusturyal\u0131 m\u0131, Avusturyas\u0131z m\u0131\u2019, \u2018monar\u015fik mi, cumhuriyet mi\u2019, \u2018federal mi, merkezi mi\u2019 olsun gibi \u201cba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7 sorunlar\u0131\u201dn\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmekle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yayd\u0131, ya da her \u015feyden \u00f6nce bunlar\u0131 ele almak durumundayd\u0131. Ancak meclis, Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n Almanca konu\u015fulan b\u00fct\u00fcn b\u00f6lgelerini birle\u015ftirmeyi hedefleyen Pancermenist \u201cB\u00fcy\u00fck Almanya\u201dc\u0131lar ile, Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n Alman Birli\u011finin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kalmas\u0131n\u0131 isteyen Prusya yanl\u0131s\u0131 \u201cK\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Almanya\u201dc\u0131lar aras\u0131nda \u00f6yle keskin bir \u015fekilde b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc ki, tart\u0131\u015fma bile yap\u0131lam\u0131yordu. \u201cPrusyac\u0131lar\u201d haline gelen Kleindeutsch hareketi ile \u201cAvusturyal\u0131 birlik\u201di savunan \u201cB\u00fcy\u00fck Almanya\u201dc\u0131lar\u0131n yollar\u0131 iyice ayr\u0131ld\u0131. Sonunda geli\u015fmelere damgas\u0131n\u0131 vuran Prusya, yenik d\u00fc\u015fense Grossdeutsch oldu.<\/p>\n

Habsburglar taraf\u0131nda ve yan\u0131nda olmas\u0131 beklenen \u00c7ekler, ne Avusturya, ne de Prusya ile beraberdi. Kendi devrimlerinin hayali i\u00e7inde Frankfurt meclisinin liberallerine bile y\u00fcz vermemi\u015f, Frankfurt\u2019a gelmemi\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n

Ve Avusturya vekilleri ile \u201cB\u00fcy\u00fck Almanya\u201dc\u0131lar 1849 Nisan\u2019\u0131nda Frankfurt\u2019tan ayr\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Alman tarihinde Vorparlament olarak ge\u00e7en, \u00e7ok az i\u015f\u00e7i ve k\u00f6yl\u00fc (d\u00f6rt usta ve bir k\u00f6yl\u00fc vard\u0131) olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen ilk ba\u015flarda devrimci bir bile\u015fimi olan bu \u201cayd\u0131nlar\u201d (104 profes\u00f6r, akademisyen ve \u00f6\u011fretmen, 100 hukuk\u00e7u ve adli memur, 92 avukat, 13 i\u015fadam\u0131) meclisi, bir y\u0131l kadar ya\u015fad\u0131. \u201cK\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Almanya\u201dya teslim olmu\u015f olarak, anayasa haz\u0131rlanmas\u0131 ve \u201cBirlik\u201din ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi i\u00e7in Prusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nder rol\u00fcn\u00fcn belirlenmesini sa\u011flad\u0131ktan sonra ortadan kalkt\u0131. Bu parlamentonun b\u00fct\u00fcn talepleri, prensler ve tutucular taraf\u0131ndan bast\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve arka plana att\u0131r\u0131lmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Almanya tarihindeki ilk genel se\u00e7im de bu meclis taraf\u0131ndan kararla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bir anayasa haz\u0131rland\u0131ysa da di\u011fer sorunlar\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlerine yakla\u015f\u0131lamad\u0131. Tart\u0131\u015fmalar s\u00fcr\u00fcp gitti.<\/p>\n

Avusturya\u2019y\u0131 d\u0131\u015flayan \u201cK\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Almanya\u201d \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc, b\u00fct\u00fcn giri\u015fimleri Prusya\u2019ya b\u0131rak\u0131yor, imparatorluk tac\u0131n\u0131 do\u011fal olarak Prusya kral\u0131na veriyordu.<\/p>\n

Prusya tekeli ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ama sonu\u00e7 veremeyecekti. K\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra b\u00fct\u00fcn devrimci geli\u015fmeler tersine d\u00f6necek, prenslerin birli\u011fi \u00f6nleyen dar g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fl\u00fc anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131 tekrar hakim olacak, Prusya kral\u0131 IV. Friedrich Wilhelm\u2019in \u201cBirli\u011fin \u0130mparatoru\u201d olmaktan \u00e7ekinmesi ve ka\u00e7\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131n neden oldu\u011fu oyunbozanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ya\u015fanacak, burjuvazinin elveri\u015fli durumdan yararlanma konusundaki tutuklulu\u011fu ve korkakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemin f\u0131rsatlar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011ferlendirilememesine yol a\u00e7acak, b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131n sonucu olarak meclis da\u011f\u0131lacak, \u201cPrusya Birli\u011fi\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan yeni bir federasyon \u00f6nerisi ise havada kalacakt\u0131. (18)<\/p>\n

Her t\u00fcrl\u00fc siyasal geli\u015fmeden rahats\u0131z olan modernite \u00f6ncesi se\u00e7kinler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7 bir \u201ckonsens\u00fcs\u201de a\u00e7\u0131k olmamas\u0131 yan\u0131nda Alman burjuvazisi, yetersizdi, \u00f6zg\u00fcvensizdi, inisiyatifsizdi ve siyasal \u00f6zlemlerden yoksundu.<\/p>\n

Bu arada Avusturya bo\u015f durmam\u0131\u015f, Prusya\u2019n\u0131n giri\u015fimlerine kar\u015f\u0131 hem gizli, hem de a\u00e7\u0131k faaliyetlerde bulunmu\u015ftu. Slav milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi, Metternich taraf\u0131ndan Alman liberalizmine ve Prusya birlik\u00e7ili\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131 desteklenmi\u015fti. Hi\u00e7bir zaman ulusalc\u0131 bir e\u011filim g\u00f6stermemi\u015f Metternich\u2019in Avusturyal\u0131 olmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanan bu \u00f6zelli\u011fi, Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n siyasal ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131yla tam olarak \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n

Herkes \u201cbirlik\u201di savunuyordu ama b\u00fcy\u00fck veya k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Almanya ideallerinin tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 sa\u011flanamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, b\u00fcy\u00fck veya k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Almanya\u2019n\u0131n tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmadan kabullenilmesinin tehlikelerine dikkat \u00e7ekenlerin (Heine, Marx vb.) \u00e7\u0131rp\u0131nmalar\u0131 bo\u015fa gidiyordu.<\/p>\n

Prusya, hevesleri k\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, umutlar\u0131 s\u00f6nd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f ama \u201c\u00e7\u00f6pl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde\u201d duruma hakim olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

Bat\u0131 eyaletlerindeki \u201casi sanayi unsurlar\u0131 -burjuvalar kadar proleterler de-\u201d b\u00fcy\u00fck u\u011fra\u015flarla \u201cdisiplin\u201d alt\u0131na al\u0131nd\u0131 ve \u201cdo\u011fu eyaletlerinin ta\u015fra soylular\u0131yla ordunun \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131 devlet i\u00e7inde tam hakim duruma getirildi\u201d. Anti-Prusyac\u0131 \u00f6zellikleri y\u00fcz\u00fcnden bu Ren b\u00f6lgesini, geli\u015fmelere ele\u015ftirel bakanlar (Heine, Marx vb.) sempatiyle de\u011ferlendiriyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Devrimin \u00f6ncesinde Almanya \u201ck\u00f6y soylular\u0131n\u0131n ve dar kafal\u0131 burjuvalar\u0131n k\u00f6lesi\u201dydi. Devrimden sonra ise monar\u015fi daha da g\u00fc\u00e7lenmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Marx, Devrimin ard\u0131ndan, 1789 B\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z Devriminde y\u0131k\u0131lan krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 kastederek, \u201cParis\u2019ten kovulan\u0131n Berlin\u2019de yeniden do\u011fu\u015fu\u201dndan s\u00f6z ediyor, 1848\u2019in Almanya\u2019da, \u201c\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fczy\u0131l gerisinden gelen bir hastal\u0131k\u201d, \u201cihtiraslar\u0131n tarihin ard\u0131ndan nal toplamas\u0131\u201d oldu\u011funu yaz\u0131yordu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc sonu\u00e7ta \u201cne ulusal, ne Alman\u201dd\u0131, \u201cb\u00f6lgeci ve Prusyal\u0131\u201dyd\u0131. (19)<\/p>\n

Kar\u015f\u0131devrim, i\u00e7 sava\u015f ve \u201cPrusya yolu\u201d <\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>\u00a0\u201c..\u015fimdi Almanya\u2019da, Fransa ve \u0130ngiltere\u2019de bitirilmek \u00fczere olunan yerden ba\u015flanmak \u00fczere, tekelin egemenli\u011fi tan\u0131nmaya ba\u015flan\u0131yor.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>Karl Marx<\/p>\n

Kitlesel siyasi m\u00fccadeleler, kar\u015f\u0131devrimin ata\u011fa ge\u00e7mesiyle askeri m\u00fccadelelere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. 1849\u2019da Goethe\u2019nin 100. do\u011fum g\u00fcn\u00fc i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan anma gibi \u201cyumu\u015fak\u201d toplant\u0131lar etkisizle\u015fecek, anlams\u0131zla\u015facak, oyalanma halini alacak ve s\u00fcratle geride kalacakt\u0131. May\u0131sta hemen hemen ordunun tamam\u0131 isyan durumuna girdi. Ayaklanan askerler garnizonlar\u0131 bast\u0131lar, resmi binalar\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irdiler, komutanlar\u0131n evlerini yak\u0131p y\u0131kt\u0131lar. Subaylar\u0131 ka\u00e7an ordu birlikleri da\u011f\u0131l\u0131yordu ama asker gruplar\u0131 kaleleri ve kentleri zaptediyordu.<\/p>\n

Alman tarihinde ilk kez g\u00f6r\u00fclen bu \u00e7aptaki asker ayaklanmas\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131devrimci g\u00fc\u00e7lerin g\u00f6z\u00fcnde askeri m\u00fcdahaleyi gerekli hale getirdi. Prusya birlikleri ve \u201cReich k\u0131talar\u0131\u201d toplan\u0131p isyan\u0131n merkezi Baden b\u00f6lgesine y\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fc. Kuzeydeki g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve sald\u0131rgan devlet bast\u0131rd\u0131, ezdi. 1848 May\u0131s sonundan ba\u015flayarak halk kitleleri de harekete ge\u00e7ti, devrimden kalan son kazanc\u0131n Anayasa oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnerek silaha sar\u0131ld\u0131. Ancak Prusya merkezli birle\u015fik ordular kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda b\u00fct\u00fcn eyaletler birer birer yenilgiye u\u011frad\u0131. Polonya\u2019daki ayaklanma da kanla ezildi. B\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131y\u0131mlar yap\u0131ld\u0131, y\u00fcz binlerce insan \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc ve hapse at\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

Avusturya\u2019da da ayn\u0131 s\u00fcre\u00e7 ya\u015fan\u0131yordu. Prag\u2019daki, hem \u00c7eklerden ve hem de Almanlardan destek g\u00f6ren radikal ayaklanman\u0131n, imparatorun ka\u00e7mas\u0131ndan sonra yeniden toparlanan ordu taraf\u0131ndan ezilmesiyle her \u015fey tersine d\u00f6nd\u00fc. \u201c\u0130mparatorlu\u011fun ekonomik \u00e7ekirde\u011fini olu\u015fturan Bohemya\u201d ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere imparatorluk topraklar\u0131 yeniden fethedildi. Macaristan\u2019da kurulan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z Cumhuriyet, Rusya ve Avusturya ittifak\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131. Viyana\u2019n\u0131n tekrar ele ge\u00e7irilmesi ancak Ekim ay\u0131nda ve 4 bin insan\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesiyle m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olabildi.<\/p>\n

Kuzeyin Hohenzollernleri, Avusturya\u2019n\u0131n Habsburglar\u0131 duruma hakim olunca gerici ittifaklar\u0131n ortam\u0131 olu\u015ftu, beslenen ve -k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra da Prusyal\u0131 \u00f6nder taraf\u0131ndan- iyi kullan\u0131lan ideoloji art\u0131k Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fiydi.<\/p>\n

Prusya Kral\u0131 IV. Friedrich Wilhelm, bask\u0131lar\u0131 hafifletece\u011fini vaat ederek ayd\u0131nlar\u0131 kand\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 davet ederek g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, hatta a\u011f\u0131rlad\u0131, ama -\u00f6rne\u011fin, d\u00f6nemin \u00f6nemli devrimci muhalif \u015fairi Georg Herwegh\u2019e (1817-1875) yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi- g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fmeden ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yakalat\u0131p s\u0131n\u0131r d\u0131\u015f\u0131 ettirdi.<\/p>\n

1852 y\u0131l\u0131nda K\u00f6ln\u2019de y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen Kom\u00fcnistler Davas\u0131nda devrimcilerin hi\u00e7bir imkan\u0131n\u0131n kalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Kar\u015f\u0131devrimin y\u00fckseli\u015fi o kadar etkili ve kapsaml\u0131yd\u0131 ki, devrime kat\u0131lan ilericiler, ayd\u0131nlar, subaylar, i\u015f\u00e7iler, k\u00f6yl\u00fcler ve hatta kimi din adamlar\u0131 kendi topraklar\u0131nda bar\u0131namad\u0131lar, Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n di\u011fer \u00fclkelerine ka\u00e7mak, oralarda ya\u015famak zorunda kald\u0131lar. (20)<\/p>\n

Fransa\u2019da, Paris\u2019te Alman politik g\u00f6\u00e7menler en b\u00fcy\u00fck yabanc\u0131 grubunu olu\u015fturur duruma geldi. 1850\u2019den sonra Paris 70 bine yak\u0131n Alman\u0131 bar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131r oldu. B\u00fct\u00fcn Fransa\u2019ya, ge\u00e7ici olarak gelip gidenler de dahil edilirse, o d\u00f6nemde 300 binden fazla Alman\u0131n geldi\u011fi san\u0131l\u0131yor. Uzun bir s\u00fcre Paris\u2019te birinci \u201cyabanc\u0131 dil\u201d Almanca olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u0130svi\u00e7re\u2019ye gidenler, uzun y\u0131llar orada kald\u0131lar ve \u00e7e\u015fitli alanlarda m\u00fccadelelerine devam ettiler. \u00c7ok say\u0131da Alman\u0131n gitti\u011fi bu kom\u015fu \u00fclkelerde \u00e7ok zor \u015fartlarda ya\u015fayanlar, \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc kurtulu\u015f g\u00f6renler, t\u0131marhanelerde ve sokaklarda ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 yitirenler oldu. Paris\u2019te o kadar \u00e7ok say\u0131da Alman delirmi\u015fti ki, Frans\u0131zlar, neredeyse \u201cdelili\u011fin Almanlar\u0131n ulusal hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011funu\u201d (Heine) sanacaklard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u0130svi\u00e7re, Fransa ve \u0130ngiltere\u2019ye gidenlerin bir k\u0131sm\u0131 daha sonra, \u00fclkelerine d\u00f6nmek ve m\u00fccadeleyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek olana\u011f\u0131 bulamay\u0131nca Kuzey Amerika\u2019ya gitti, orada i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 i\u00e7inde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131 (21), bunlar\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131 i\u00e7 sava\u015fa kat\u0131larak Amerika\u2019daki devrimci m\u00fccadeleye hizmet etti; \u00f6nemli g\u00f6revlere gelenler ve b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131larda bulunanlar oldu. (22) Bir ba\u015fka k\u0131s\u0131m ise, gittikleri ve bulunduklar\u0131 yerde kald\u0131 ve devrimden ve m\u00fccadeleden uzakla\u015ft\u0131. (23) Amerika\u2019n\u0131n bat\u0131s\u0131nda 18 Mat<\/p>\n

\"\"
18 Mart 1848 Berlin Ayaklanmas\u0131’nda \u00e7o\u011fu i\u015f\u00e7ilerden ve yoksullardan olu\u015fan 300 ki\u015fi katledildi. Onlar i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan t\u00f6reni gmsteren bir \u00e7izim<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

48\u2019de bulunan alt\u0131n y\u00fcz\u00fcnden ya\u015fanan \u201cAlt\u0131na H\u00fccum\u201d ak\u0131n\u0131na kap\u0131lan ve kat\u0131lanlar bile oldu ve bunlar Eldorado\u2019da, California\u2019da kaybolup gittiler. Devrimden kopanlar i\u00e7inde y\u0131llar sonra d\u00f6n\u00fcp kar\u015f\u0131devrime hizmet sunanlar da g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc. (24)<\/p>\n

Amerika\u2019ya Almanlar\u0131n ak\u0131n\u0131 ve gideceklerin hevesi, \u201cAmerika rehberleri\u201dnin, \u201cpratik \u0130ngilizce konu\u015fma k\u0131lavuzlar\u0131\u201dn\u0131n, gitmek isteyenlere \u00f6\u011f\u00fctlerde bulunan kitaplar\u0131n bas\u0131lmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Amerika\u2019da ise \u00f6nceleri bir araya gelenler \u00e7o\u011funluktayken, yo\u011funluk \u00f6yleydi ki \u201cAmerika\u2019daki Alman ressamlar\u201d gibi gruplar bile olu\u015fuyordu, sonralar\u0131 herkes kendi yolunu bulup birbirinden kopuyordu. Bir s\u00fcre sonra \u201cAlmanl\u0131k\u201da ve Almancaya neredeyse rastlanmaz olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Kar\u015f\u0131devrimin T\u00fcrkiye\u2019ye arma\u011fanlar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

Polonyal\u0131 devrimci general Josef Bem T\u00fcrkiye\u2019ye geldi ve Osmanl\u0131 ordusunda \u201cMurat Pa\u015fa\u201d olarak uzun s\u00fcre subayl\u0131k yapt\u0131, Tuna boylar\u0131nda ordulara komuta etti. Gene devrimci Lajos (Ludwig) Kossuth da T\u00fcrkiye\u2019ye gelenlerdendi. Avusturya\u2019ya ba\u015fkald\u0131r\u0131p cumhuriyet kurmak isteyen harekete \u00f6nderlik etmi\u015fti. (25) Polonyal\u0131 ve Macar milliyet\u00e7ilerinin bir k\u0131sm\u0131 dinlerini koruyarak T\u00fcrkiye\u2019de kal\u0131rken, bir k\u0131sm\u0131 da din de\u011fi\u015ftirerek T\u00fcrkl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc benimsedi ve yeni yurduna, yeni toplumuna hizmet etmeye koyuldu. Kont Konstantin Borzecki, \u201cMustafa Celalettin Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla (top\u00e7ulukta ve haritac\u0131l\u0131kta uzman olarak \u00f6nce miralay, sonra pa\u015fa oldu ve Karada\u011f\u2019da sava\u015fta \u015fehit d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, Naz\u0131m Hikmet\u2019in dedesidir); Koscielski, \u201cSefer Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla (Ruslara kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015ft\u0131); Isaak Eduard Schnitzer, \u201cMehmet Emin Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla; Baron von Stein, \u201cFerhat Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla; Severin Bielinski, \u201cNihat Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla (serasker olarak); Vladislav Czaikovski, \u201cMuzaffer Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla; Michal Czaikovski, \u201cMehmed Sad\u0131k Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla; as\u0131l ad\u0131 bilinmeyen bir Erdel soylusu, \u201cMacar S\u00fcleyman Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla (k\u0131z\u0131 \u00fcnl\u00fc kad\u0131n \u015fair Nigar Han\u0131md\u0131r); bir ba\u015fka Macar subay \u201c\u00d6mer L\u00fctf\u00fc Pa\u015fa\u201d ad\u0131yla Osmanl\u0131 ordusuna girdiler ve hizmetlerde bulundular.<\/p>\n

Devletin ba\u015fka alanlar\u0131nda, teknik e\u011fitimleri ve uzmanl\u0131klar\u0131 olanlar\u0131n m\u00fchendislik ve e\u011fitim kurumlar\u0131nda \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar\u0131, sanat ve ticaret alan\u0131ndan gelenlerin sivil hayatta g\u00f6rev alanlar\u0131 vard\u0131r. Toprak sahiplerinin \u00f6rnek tar\u0131m i\u015fletmeleri ve k\u00f6yler kuranlar\u0131 da oldu.<\/p>\n

Osmanl\u0131 devleti, \u00e7ok zor \u015fartlarda olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen Prusya ve Avusturya\u2019dan \u0131srarla istenen m\u00fcltecileri geri vermedi\u011fi i\u00e7in s\u0131\u011f\u0131nanlar b\u00fcy\u00fck bir bor\u00e7luluk ve ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k duygusu i\u00e7inde T\u00fcrklerle kayna\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Tanzimat d\u00f6nemini ya\u015fayan Osmanl\u0131 devletinin Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n 48 devrimcilerine kucak a\u00e7mas\u0131, kendini o dDevrime, devrimlere ve devrimcilere yak\u0131n hissetmesinden de\u011fil, kuruldu\u011fundan ba\u015flayarak hep almaya istekli olmas\u0131ndand\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131llar \u00f6nce \u0130spanya\u2019dan ka\u00e7an Yahudileri \u00fclkesine kabul etmekle neler kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 biliyor olmal\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Devrim sonras\u0131 Almanya; bask\u0131 alt\u0131nda y\u00fckselen Almanya<\/strong><\/p>\n

48 Devrimi sonras\u0131 bask\u0131 \u015fartlar\u0131, Avrupa\u2019da m\u00fccadelelere kat\u0131lan kitleleri e\u011fitti, kitlelerin i\u00e7inden \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kanlar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131 \u00f6nder oldu. \u00d6nderlerin \u00f6nemli bir k\u0131sm\u0131 ise daha sonraki m\u00fccadelelerde belirleyici roller \u00fcstlenecekti.<\/p>\n

50\u2019li y\u0131llar, kitlelerin bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131, gericili\u011fin her bak\u0131mdan etkili oldu\u011fu, ancak sanayinin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi y\u0131llard\u0131. 1850\u2019ye kadar o y\u00fczy\u0131lda kurulan \u015firket say\u0131s\u0131 67 iken, yaln\u0131zca 1853-57 aras\u0131nda kurulan \u015firket say\u0131s\u0131 115 olmu\u015ftu. Ekonomik geli\u015fme, siyasal taleplerin ve kitlelerin bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinde y\u00fckseldi. Uzun y\u0131llar i\u015f\u00e7ilerin \u00fccret ve hak talebi ortaya \u00e7\u0131kamad\u0131.<\/p>\n

Ekonomik b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fme ve ekonominin \u00f6nceli\u011fi konular\u0131nda toplumsal bir ittifak sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bunun kapsam\u0131na en ba\u015fta \u00fccretlerin art\u0131r\u0131lmamas\u0131 giriyordu.<\/p>\n

1857\u2019de yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lan para birli\u011fi ve benzer merkeziyet\u00e7i uygulamalar geli\u015fmelere hizmet etti.<\/p>\n

1851-53 aras\u0131nda Avusturya, Prusya merkezli \u201ck\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00fcmr\u00fck birli\u011fi\u201dni etkisizle\u015ftirmek amac\u0131yla daha geni\u015f bir g\u00fcmr\u00fck birli\u011fi projesi uygulamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Prusya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcmr\u00fck birli\u011fiyle Avusturya tecrit edilmi\u015f, ekonomik durumu \u00e7ok k\u00f6t\u00fcye gitmi\u015fti. Ancak Avusturya bu giri\u015fiminde ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olamad\u0131.<\/p>\n

60\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda Prusya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcmr\u00fck tarifelerinde yapmay\u0131 tasarlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 indirimden g\u00fcneydeki Alman devletlerinin ekonomik bak\u0131mdan zarar g\u00f6recekleri kayg\u0131s\u0131yla kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131 Zollverein, Prusya\u2019n\u0131n geri ad\u0131mlar atmas\u0131 sayesinde ya\u015famaya devam etti. Ama bu arada g\u00fcmr\u00fck birli\u011fi etkisini art\u0131rd\u0131.<\/p>\n

Prusya\u2019n\u0131n yak\u0131n tarihte irad\u00ee bir g\u00fcd\u00fcyle ekonomik ilerleme t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00f6zel bir \u00f6rne\u011fini yaratm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131, ekonomik reform gelene\u011fine sahip olmas\u0131, orta s\u0131n\u0131flara gelece\u011fin ana \u00f6nceli\u011fi olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri ekonomik geli\u015fmeyi ancak onun ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirece\u011fini g\u00f6steriyordu. Prusya\u2019ya g\u00fcven duyuluyordu yani.<\/p>\n

Viyana Konferans\u0131 sonras\u0131nda Prusya kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 yeni topraklarla Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da madenler, mineraller ve k\u00f6m\u00fcr zenginli\u011fi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan birinci \u00fclke durumuna gelmi\u015fti. Bunun kadar \u00f6nemli olan, b\u00fct\u00fcn yeralt\u0131 kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011ferlendirilmesi i\u00e7in planlamalar yap\u0131lmas\u0131 ve hemen her \u015feyin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131na giri\u015filmesiydi. K\u00f6m\u00fcr \u00fcretimi 1850\u2019de 3 milyon tonun alt\u0131ndayken 1860\u2019ta 7 milyon tona yakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Prusya\u2019n\u0131n ekonomik geli\u015fmesi ve hamleleri Almanya\u2019n\u0131n geri kalan\u0131n\u0131 da pe\u015finden s\u00fcr\u00fckl\u00fcyordu. Almanya\u2019n\u0131n birle\u015fik k\u00f6m\u00fcr \u00fcretimi 1846\u2019daki 3,2 milyon tondan 1860\u2019ta 12,3 milyon tona ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

\u00c7elik \u00fcretiminde yeni teknikler geli\u015ftirildi. 1835\u2019te yap\u0131m\u0131na ba\u015flanan demiryolu, a\u011fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc. 1850\u2019de 3860 kilometre iken, 1860\u2019ta 7169 kilometreye, 1870\u2019te ise 11523 kilometreye vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Devrimin \u00f6ncesinde \u201ck\u00f6y soylular\u0131n\u0131n ve dar kafal\u0131 burjuvalar\u0131n\u201d elinde olan Almanya\u2019n\u0131n durumunda bu bak\u0131mdan bir de\u011fi\u015fme olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ama konfederasyon topraklar\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak m\u00fclkiyetine ve soylulara dayanan bir kapitalizm modeli yarat\u0131ld\u0131. Sonradan \u201cPrusya Yolu\u201d denilecek olan ve iktidar\u0131n soylulardan ve monar\u015fiden al\u0131nmadan kapitalizme ge\u00e7i\u015fin sa\u011fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu modelde b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahipleri s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 (Junkerler) tasfiye edilmiyor ve derebeylerin b\u00fcy\u00fck kapitalist i\u015fletmelerin sahipleri olmalar\u0131, sanayicilerle ortakl\u0131klara girmeleri te\u015fvik ediliyor ve sa\u011flan\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

Giri\u015fimin \u00f6n\u00fcndeki engelleri kald\u0131rma y\u00f6n\u00fcnde at\u0131lan bir ad\u0131m da, g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc o zamana kadar hep korumu\u015f olan loncalar\u0131n ve meslek birliklerinin kontrol\u00fcn\u00fcn k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131yd\u0131. K\u0131s\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 rol oynayan loncalar\u0131n geleneksel \u00f6zdenetim sistemi, Gewerbefreiheitla (\u201cticaret ve giri\u015fim \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc\u201d ile) par\u00e7aland\u0131. Bu geli\u015fmeyi ve kendilerinin i\u015flevsizle\u015ftirilmesini kayg\u0131yla izleyen zanaatkar kesimler, bir s\u00fcre sonra \u201cilerleme\u201dye d\u00fc\u015fman kesilecekler ve 70\u2019lerden sonraki gerici, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131, sa\u011fc\u0131 hareketler i\u00e7in toplumsal ve siyasi temeli olu\u015fturacaklard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Prusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fc her bak\u0131mdan a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Almanya art\u0131k Prusyac\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n

1861\u2019de tahta ge\u00e7erek Prusya kral\u0131 olan \u201casker ruhlu\u201d I. Wilhelm\u2019in \u201cSava\u015f Bakan\u0131\u201d Roon (26), kral\u0131, ordunun yeniden \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesine, askerlik s\u00fcresinin art\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na (2 y\u0131ldan 3 y\u0131la) ve asker say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n (her y\u0131l silah alt\u0131na al\u0131nanlar\u0131n 40 binden 65 bine) y\u00fckseltilmesine kolayca raz\u0131 etmi\u015fti. Von Moltke (27) ile birlikte gerekenleri yapt\u0131lar, ortaya yeni ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir ordu \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131lar. \u0130\u015f, askeri g\u00fcc\u00fc kullanacak bir iktidara ve bu iktidar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131n bulunmas\u0131na kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Parlamentonun askeri giderleri i\u00e7eren b\u00fct\u00e7eyi reddetmesinin yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 siyasi bunal\u0131m, Roon\u2019un, ayn\u0131 zamanda arkada\u015f\u0131 oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in \u00e7ok iyi tan\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan \u015fans\u00f6lyeli\u011fe \u00f6nerdi\u011fi ki\u015finin kral taraf\u0131ndan kabul edilmesini kolayla\u015ft\u0131racakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Bu ki\u015fi, Alman Birli\u011fi\u2019ni zorla ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiren Bismarck\u2019t\u0131.<\/p>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fck devletlerinin kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 Viyana Kongresi, Avrupa\u2019daki a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkelerin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 belirledi. Fransa\u2019n\u0131n zarar\u0131na olarak yap\u0131lan d\u00fczenlemelerden en kazan\u00e7l\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kan Prusya oldu. Ancak \u201cAlman Birli\u011fi\u201dnden biraz uzakla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Prusya\u2019da belli kesimlerde hayal k\u0131r\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da yaratt\u0131.<\/p>\n

2) Asl\u0131nda o d\u00f6nemde Almanya\u2019da feodal ge\u00e7mi\u015ften kaynaklanan ve kendilerine devlet diyen prenslik ve beylikler olarak y\u00fczlerce \u201cdevlet\u201d ve devlet\u00e7ik bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n

3) Fransa\u2019n\u0131n Almanya\u2019y\u0131 dize getirdi\u011fi y\u0131llarda Napoleon Prusya\u2019ya, ancak s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 say\u0131da askeri olabilece\u011fi bir yasak koymu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n

4) Almanya\u2019y\u0131 Roma\u2019dan kurtaran Luther\u2019i anmak ve Napoleon\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 1813\u2019te kazan\u0131lan zaferi kutlamak i\u00e7in toplanan 500 kadar \u00f6\u011frenci-gen\u00e7, Alman milliyet\u00e7ili\u011finin \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f noktalar\u0131ndan birisidir. Bu siyasi festival, tarihte Alman Birli\u011fi i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan ilk milli g\u00f6steri olarak bilinir.<\/p>\n

5) Bu renkler, Napoleon\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015fm\u0131\u015f g\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc birliklerinin flamas\u0131ndan geliyordu; 1848 devriminde Almanya\u2019n\u0131n ulusal renkleri olacak, \u00e7ok sonralar\u0131 da bug\u00fcnk\u00fc bayra\u011f\u0131 belirleyeceklerdi.<\/p>\n

6) Lionel Richard, Nazizm ve K\u00fclt\u00fcr<\/em>, Kalem Yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k, Ankara 1985, s.38.<\/p>\n

7) Akt. Sigrid Hunke, Bat\u0131\u2019y\u0131 Ayd\u0131nlatan Do\u011fu G\u00fcne\u015fi<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2008, s.393.<\/p>\n

8) Prusya Napoleon ordular\u0131na yenildi\u011finde, b\u00fct\u00fcn Prusya\u2019da \u201cNapoleon Yasalar\u0131\u201d ge\u00e7erli k\u0131l\u0131nd\u0131. Hatta, Prusya\u2019n\u0131n damar\u0131na basmak ister gibi ve belki de bunun i\u00e7in, \u201cYahudilerin kurtulu\u015fu\u201d bile g\u00fcndeme getirildi ve Yahudilere Frans\u0131z dayatmas\u0131yla \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckleri\u201d verildi. Fransa\u2019da devrimin do\u011fal gere\u011fi olarak vatanda\u015fl\u0131kta e\u015fitlenen Yahudilik, Almanya\u2019da Napoleon zoruyla ve bir \u201cyasa\u201dyla Almanlarla e\u015fitlenmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

9) \u201cOp. 26, Faschingsschwank aus Wien\u201d, 1839; bkz. Sidney Finkelstein, Besteci ve Ulus \/ M\u00fczikte Halk Miras\u0131<\/em>, Pencere Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1995, s.174.<\/p>\n

10) Finkelstein, 1996, s.67. Ayr\u0131ca, Naziler, Schubert\u2019i yok etmek istemi\u015fler, bunu ba\u015faramad\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in bestelerini \u201cHeineli g\u00fcfteler\u201dden ayr\u0131 olsun diye g\u00fcftesiz, metinsiz basm\u0131\u015flar, bestelerin g\u00fcfteli yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131n\u0131 yasaklam\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n

11) B\u00fcrokrasiye girebilmek i\u00e7in aristokrat olma zorunlulu\u011fu kalkt\u0131ktan sonra \u00fcniversiteler, devlet memurlar\u0131n\u0131 yeti\u015ftiren kurumlar olarak ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015flard\u0131 (bu \u00f6nemlerini y\u00fcz y\u0131l boyunca Birinci D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019na kadar hep koruyacaklard\u0131r).<\/p>\n

12) Bkz. Georg B\u00fcchner, B\u00fct\u00fcn Yap\u0131tlar\u0131<\/em>, Adam Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2001, s.27-41. \u201c\u0130nsan Haklar\u0131 \u0130\u00e7in Topluluk\u201d (1834) adl\u0131 gizli bir derne\u011fin de kurucusu olan devrimci B\u00fcchner (1813-1837), \u201c\u015eatolara Sava\u015f, Kul\u00fcbelere Bar\u0131\u015f\u201d adl\u0131 bildiriyi de yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bildirinin bu ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Frans\u0131z Devriminin ordusunun sloganlar\u0131ndan biriydi.<\/p>\n

13) Wally, die Zweiflerin<\/em> adl\u0131 Alman edebiyat\u0131ndaki ilk kad\u0131n roman\u0131yla h\u00fck\u00fcm giyen Karl Ferdinand Gutzkow (1811-1878), Junges Deutschland<\/strong> adl\u0131 edebiyat grubunun kurucular\u0131ndand\u0131. \u00d6nceleri K. Marx\u2019\u0131n da i\u00e7inde oldu\u011fu grupta Laube, B\u00f6rne, Heine, Mundt vb. d\u00f6nemin b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6nemli ilerici sanat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 ve ayd\u0131nlar\u0131 bulunuyordu. Jungdeutsch<\/strong>lar \u201cTarihsel Okul\u201d adl\u0131 gerici ak\u0131ma kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karak, Hegel\u2019i ve Frans\u0131z Devriminin ilkelerini savunuyorlard\u0131. 1830 Devrimlerinin gizli \u00f6rg\u00fctleri Giovine \u0130talia<\/strong> (\u201cGen\u00e7 \u0130talya\u201d, Jungen Italien) ve Jeune Europa<\/strong>\u2019n\u0131n (\u201cGen\u00e7 Avrupa\u201d, Jungen Europa) adlar\u0131ndan esinlenerek ve bu \u00f6rg\u00fctlerin kurucusu \u0130talyan devrimci Mazzini\u2019nin (Guiseppe, 1805-1872) y\u00f6nlendirmesiyle bu ad\u0131 alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ba\u015f\u0131nda Frans\u0131zcas\u0131yla La Jeune Allemagne<\/strong> olarak kullan\u0131lan bu adland\u0131rma, hem s\u00f6zc\u00fck ba\u011flam\u0131nda ve hem de siyasal \u00e7izgi olarak J\u00f6n T\u00fcrkler<\/strong>in de \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

14) 1848 Devrimi Fransa\u2019da i\u015f\u00e7iler ve halk lehine, kraliyet ve soyluluk aleyhine \u00f6nemli sonu\u00e7lar do\u011furdu. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma s\u00fcresi s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131, genel oy kabul edildi, kat\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n yolu a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131, hanedan d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, kral (Louis-Philippe) ka\u00e7t\u0131, soyluluk unvanlar\u0131 ve s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerde k\u00f6lelik tekrar yasakland\u0131. Ancak, devrimi ekonomik kriz zor duruma soktu, Napoleon\u2019un ye\u011feni Louis Napoleon 2 Aral\u0131k 1851\u2019de bir darbe yapt\u0131, \u201c\u0130kinci Cumhuriyet\u201di ortadan kald\u0131rd\u0131, III. Napoleon olarak imparator oldu ve her \u015fey gene \u00f6nceki duruma d\u00f6nd\u00fc. Ezilen, bast\u0131r\u0131lan halk\u0131n durumu ise eskisinden de k\u00f6t\u00fcye gitti. Louis Napoleon\u2019un \u201cimparatorlu\u011fu\u201dnu, Fransa\u2019n\u0131n \u201c\u0130kinci \u0130mparatorluk\u201dunu ilk tan\u0131yanlar Avusturya ve Prusya olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

15) B\u00fct\u00fcn \u0130talyan devletleri ve Eflak, Moldavya gibi Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusundaki \u00fclkeler devrimden etkilendiler. K\u0131ta Avrupa\u2019s\u0131nda ekonomik bak\u0131mdan en k\u00f6t\u00fc durumda olanlardan biri olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen 1848, bir tek Bel\u00e7ika\u2019da ya\u015fanmad\u0131. Rusya ise devrimin tamamen d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kald\u0131.<\/p>\n

16) Halk\u0131n, y\u00f6netim taraf\u0131ndan bu hi\u00e7 beklenmeyen ayaklanmas\u0131na Metternich\u2019in \u201c\u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc\u201d, askeri kullanarak m\u00fcdahaleydi, \u015fiddetti. Ancak \u0130mparator I. Ferdinand, Metternich\u2019i g\u00f6revden almay\u0131 ve \u00f6d\u00fcn vermeyi tercih etti.<\/p>\n

17) E. J. Hobsbawm, 1780\u2019den G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze Milletler ve Milliyet\u00e7ilik \/ Program, Mit, Ger\u00e7eklik<\/em>, Ayr\u0131nt\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 2006, s.50.<\/p>\n

18) F. Engels, \u201cAlmanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131devrim\u201d 1851-52, Almanya\u2019da Burjuva Demokratik Devrim<\/em>, s.317-322.<\/p>\n

19) \u201cBurjuvazi ve Kar\u015f\u0131devrim\u201d, Aral\u0131k 1848, K. Marx – F. Engels, Politika ve Felsefe<\/em>, s.152.<\/p>\n

20) \u00d6rne\u011fin, i\u015f\u00e7i \u00f6nderlerinden Johann Philip Becker (1809-1886), Johann Georg Eccarius (1818-1889), yazar Wilhelm Eichoff (1883-1895), gazeteci Amand G\u00f6gg (1820-1897), K\u00f6ln Kom\u00fcnistler Davas\u0131 san\u0131klar\u0131ndan hekim Abraham Jacobi (1830-1919), do\u011fabilimci Karl Vogt (1817-1895).<\/p>\n

21) \u00d6rne\u011fin, sonralar\u0131 Birinci Enternasyonal\u2019in sekreterlerinden olan Friedrich Adolf Sorge (1828-1906).<\/p>\n

22) \u00d6rne\u011fin, mimar Oswald Dietz, avukat F. F. Karl Hecker (Kuzey saflar\u0131nda albay olarak sava\u015ft\u0131), general Alexander Schimmelpfennig, politikac\u0131 Karl Schurz, te\u011fmen August Willich (Amerikan i\u00e7 sava\u015f\u0131nda general), avukat-yazar Gustav Struve.<\/p>\n

23) K. Marx ve F. Engels 1852\u2019de, \u0130ngiltere\u2019ye s\u0131\u011f\u0131nm\u0131\u015f ka\u00e7k\u0131n ve d\u00f6nekleri S\u00fcrg\u00fcndeki B\u00fcy\u00fck Adamlar<\/em> adl\u0131 kitaplar\u0131nda (Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1977) alayl\u0131 bir dille sergilediler (\u00f6rne\u011fin, G. Kinkel, R. Schrramm, A. Ruge vb.).<\/p>\n

24) \u00d6rne\u011fin, devrimci \u00f6nderlerden Lothar Bucher sonradan Bismarck\u2019a d\u0131\u015fi\u015flerinde dan\u0131\u015fmanl\u0131k yapt\u0131. \u0130ktisat\u00e7\u0131 Ludwig Bamberger 1863\u2019te \u0130ngiltere\u2019den d\u00f6n\u00fcp \u00f6nce Bismarck\u2019a ekonomi dan\u0131\u015fman\u0131 ve sonra da Deutsche Bank\u2019a y\u00f6netici oldu. Yenilgiden sonra \u0130svi\u00e7re\u2019ye ka\u00e7an gazeteci August Brass (1818-1876), 1860\u2019tan sonra \u201cBismarck\u2019\u0131n gazetecisi\u201d olarak Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung<\/em>\u2019u \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. Louis Bonaparte\u2019a maa\u015fla ajanl\u0131k yapan Karl Vogt\u2019u Marx Herr Vogt<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda te\u015fhir etti.<\/p>\n

25) Macar ayaklanmas\u0131na \u0130talyanlar da destek verince Avusturya \u00e7aresiz kald\u0131 ve Rusya\u2019y\u0131 yard\u0131ma \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rd\u0131. Ac\u0131mas\u0131z Rus General Paskiyevi\u00e7\u2019in bask\u0131s\u0131 ve zulm\u00fc kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda Polonyal\u0131lar, Macarlar ve \u0130talyanlar kitleler halinde \u00e7e\u015fitli yerlere ka\u00e7mak zorunda kald\u0131.<\/p>\n

26) Albrecht Roon (1803-1879), b\u00fcy\u00fck askeri ba\u015far\u0131lara imza atm\u0131\u015f Prusyal\u0131 general. Sonradan Bismarck\u2019\u0131n da bakan\u0131 ve yak\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma arkada\u015f\u0131.<\/p>\n

27) B\u00fcy\u00fck askeri stratejist ve teorisyen \u00fcnl\u00fc Prusyal\u0131 gerici mare\u015fal Kont Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke (1800-1891), Bohemya ve Danimarka\u2019daki sava\u015flarda bu orduyla b\u00fcy\u00fck ba\u015far\u0131lar kazand\u0131. 1870 Fransa sava\u015f\u0131nda da belirleyici olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

Se\u00e7ilmi\u015f Kaynak\u00e7a<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) H. G. Adler, Die Juden in Deutschland \/ Von der Aufkl\u00e4rung bis zur Nationalsozialismus<\/em>, M\u00fcnchen 1987.<\/p>\n

2) Max Beer, Sosyalizmin ve Sosyal M\u00fccadelelerin Tarihi<\/em>, \u0130stanbul 1965.<\/p>\n

3) Isaiah Berlin, Romantikli\u011fin K\u00f6kleri<\/em>, YKY \/ Cogito, \u0130stanbul 2004.<\/p>\n

4) H. Boockmann, H. Schilling, H. Schulze, M. St\u00fcrmer, Mitten in Europa – Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Sammlung Siedler, Berlin 1992.<\/p>\n

5) Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher, Robert Lee Wollf, 1453\u2019ten Bug\u00fcne D\u00fcnya Tarihi ve \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f Uygarl\u0131k<\/em>, Cem Yay\u0131nevi, \u0130stanbul 1982.<\/p>\n

6) Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Burjuva Demokratik Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1975.<\/p>\n

7) Friedrich Engels, Almanya\u2019da Devrim ve Kar\u015f\u0131-Devrim<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1992.<\/p>\n

8) Friedrich Engels, Tarihte Zorun Rol\u00fc \u2013 Bismarck\u2019\u0131n Kan ve Zul\u00fcm Politikas\u0131 \u00dczerine Bir \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma<\/em>, Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 1979.<\/p>\n

9) Lothar Gall, Bismarck \/ Der weisse Revolution\u00e4r<\/em>, Propyl\u00e4en, Frankfurt\/M-Berlin-Wien 1980.<\/p>\n

10) \u201cDie Geschichte der Deutschen \u2013 Von den Germanen bis zum Mauerfall\u201d, Stern<\/em>, Nr.45-52, 2.11.2006 \u2013 11.11.2006.<\/p>\n

11) Geschichte des deutschen Parlamentarismus<\/em>, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn 1999.<\/p>\n

12) Oscar J. Hammen, Die Roten 48er \/ Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels<\/em>, Athenaion, Frankfurt am Main 1972.<\/p>\n

13) Eric Hobsbawm, Devrim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 \/ 1789-1848<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2005.<\/p>\n

14) Ricarda Huch, Alman Romantizmi<\/em>, Do\u011fu Bat\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2005.<\/p>\n

15) Harold James, Deutsche Identit\u00e4t, 1770-1990<\/em>, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt\/Main 1991.<\/p>\n

16) Hans Kaufmann, Heine \/ Ein Lesebuch f\u00fcr Unsere Zeit<\/em>, Aufbau Verlag, Berlin und Weimar 1983.<\/p>\n

17) Stephen J. Lee, Avrupa Tarihinden Kesitler \/ 1789-1980<\/em>, Dost Kitabevi, Ankara 2004.<\/p>\n

18) K. Marks – F. Engels, Politika ve Felsefe<\/em>, \u00d6nc\u00fc Kitabevi, \u0130stanbul 1971.<\/p>\n

19) W.H. McNeill, D\u00fcnya Tarihi<\/em>, Kaynak Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul 1985.<\/p>\n

20) Klaus Schulz, Alman K\u00fclt\u00fcr Tarihi<\/em>, Orient Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2006.<\/p>\n

21) Friedrich Stieve, Geschichte des Deutshen Volkes<\/em>, Verlag von R. Oldenbourg, M\u00fcnchen und Berlin 1941.<\/p>\n

22) Veit Valentin, Knaurs Deutsche Geschichte<\/em>, Droemersche Verlagsanstalt Th. Knaur Nachf., M\u00fcnchen-Z\u00fcrich 1960.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Avrupa\u2019da 1830 ve 1848 Devrimleri Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l devrimcili\u011finin ilk \u00f6rnekleridir.\u00a0 Ama bu devrimlerin esas \u00f6zelli\u011fi, ayaklanmalara ve devrimlere geni\u015f emek\u00e7i kitlelerin kat\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ve i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 \u00f6nderli\u011finin yolunu a\u00e7mas\u0131d\u0131r.\u00a0 Art\u0131k devrimler \u201cburjuva \u00f6nderli\u011fe\u201d mahk\u00fbm olmayacakt\u0131r.\u00a0 30 ve \u00f6zellikle 48, tarih sahnesine yeni oyuncular \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u00a0 Manifesto\u2019nun bu devrimler d\u00f6neminin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc ve sonucu olmas\u0131 bir raslant\u0131 de\u011fildir.\u00a0 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":376,"featured_media":26661,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[160,38,222],"tags":[1617,746,655],"class_list":["post-26660","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-123-sayi","category-dergi-sayilari","category-tarih","tag-almanya","tag-avrupa","tag-devrim"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t