{"id":27108,"date":"2014-05-02T21:01:15","date_gmt":"2014-05-02T18:01:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=27108"},"modified":"2018-06-25T21:27:17","modified_gmt":"2018-06-25T18:27:17","slug":"nukleer-santral-temiz-ve-ucuz-enerji-kaynagi-mi-1-astari-yuzunden-pahali","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2014\/05\/02\/nukleer-santral-temiz-ve-ucuz-enerji-kaynagi-mi-1-astari-yuzunden-pahali","title":{"rendered":"N\u00fckleer santral \u2018temiz\u2019 ve \u2018ucuz\u2019 enerji kayna\u011f\u0131 m\u0131? – 1 Astar\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden pahal\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"

N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7, suyu kaynatman\u0131n olduk\u00e7a pahal\u0131, karma\u015f\u0131k ve tehlikeli bir yoludur. Uranyum yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011finde suyun i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilir, uranyum kritik k\u00fctleye ula\u015f\u0131r ve devasa niceliklerde \u0131s\u0131 \u00fcretilir ve su buharla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. \u00dcretilen buhar, borularla t\u00fcrbine y\u00f6nlendirilir ve d\u00f6nen t\u00fcrbin elektrik \u00fcretir. Yap\u0131lan propagandalarla, n\u00fckleer santrallerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z enerji \u00fcreticisi oldu\u011funa inanmam\u0131z isteniyor. N\u00fckleer enerjinin temiz ve ucuz oldu\u011fu iddia ediliyor. Asl\u0131nda, n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi ad\u0131 verilen n\u00fckleer enerjinin \u00fcretilebilmesi i\u00e7in gerekli olan devasa altyap\u0131, fosil yak\u0131tlar\u0131 ve k\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc devasa boyutlarda kullan\u0131yor.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u0130zmir Gaziemir\u2019deki kur\u015fun fabrikas\u0131nda Europium 152 ve Europium 154 izotoplar\u0131 alg\u0131land\u0131. Bu element ancak n\u00fckleer santrallerin yanm\u0131\u015f n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131nda \u00fcretilen bir yan \u00fcr\u00fcnd\u00fcr, \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcld\u00fcr!<\/p>\n

Bu \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl izotoplar \u201cN\u00fckleer santralsiz T\u00fcrkiye\u201dye nas\u0131l, nereden, kimin izniyle girdi? TAEK, \u0130zmir Valili\u011fi, \u00c7evre ve \u015eehircilik Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, Gaziemir Kaymakaml\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u201cs\u00f6z g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fse s\u00fckut alt\u0131nd\u0131r\u201d felsefesine sar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f! Manisa K\u00f6pr\u00fcba\u015f\u0131\u2019nda, Sinop\u2019ta, Mersin Akkuyu\u2019da benzer felaketlerin ya\u015fanmamas\u0131 i\u00e7in her vatanda\u015f\u0131n n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin insan sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131na olan \u00e7ekinceleri konusunda bilgilenmesi, Anti N\u00fckleer Platform toplant\u0131lar\u0131na kat\u0131lmas\u0131, bu platformlara \u00fcye olmas\u0131 ve aktif olarak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 gerekiyor.<\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer santralli \u00fclkelerden felaket \u00f6rnekleri<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cN\u00fckleer santralli\u201d \u00fclkelerde olan radyasyon felaketleri Helen Caldicott\u2019\u0131n Nuclear Madness: What you can do<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda t\u00fcyler \u00fcrpertici bir bi\u00e7imde anlat\u0131l\u0131yor, okuyal\u0131m:<\/p>\n

1) Radyasyonun insan sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131na olan etkileri konusunda uzman olan Dr. Mancuso bir ki\u015finin \u00f6m\u00fcr boyunca alaca\u011f\u0131 toplam 3,6 rad\u2019\u0131n kemik ili\u011fi kanserine, yine \u00f6m\u00fcr boyu alaca\u011f\u0131 toplam 33-38 rad\u2019\u0131n da di\u011fer kanser t\u00fcrlerine yol a\u00e7aca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 buldu. Rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose – I\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n So\u011furulmu\u015f Dozu) bir hedefin so\u011furdu\u011fu \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc, so\u011furan \u00f6zde\u011fin (maddenin) bir gram\u0131ndaki erke niceli\u011fi (erg cinsinden) ile tan\u0131mlan\u0131r. Rem ad\u0131 verilen \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc ise, hedefin so\u011furdu\u011fu rad say\u0131s\u0131yla, t\u00fcr\u00fc bilinen radyasyonun g\u00f6reli dirimsel etkinli\u011fi (biological effectiveness) \u00e7arp\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r. Bu durumda rad ile rem hemen hemen denktir. Japonya\u2019ya at\u0131lan atom bombas\u0131n\u0131n sa\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 serpintiden etkilenen insanlar \u00fczerine yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma verileri, bu dozlar\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fik d\u00fczeylerde saptanmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131: l\u00f6semi i\u00e7in 100 rad, di\u011fer kanser t\u00fcrlerinin uyart\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7inse 300-400 rad. Bug\u00fcn ise, bu end\u00fcstride \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan i\u015f\u00e7ilerin y\u0131ll\u0131k izin verilebilir dozu 5 rad olarak saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yani, i\u015f\u00e7iler her y\u0131l l\u00f6semi i\u00e7in yeterli iki kat doza (kanser olay\u0131n\u0131n iki kat\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kaca\u011f\u0131 doz) a\u00e7\u0131k kal\u0131yorlar. 7-7,5 y\u0131lda bir de kanser i\u00e7in yeterli dozu al\u0131yorlar. Dr. Thomas Najarian\u2019\u0131n Portsmouth New Hampshire\u2019da n\u00fckleer denizalt\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7ileri \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma Dr. Mancuso\u2019nun sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 do\u011fruluyor. Bu rakamlar, bundan b\u00f6yle, n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin 60 ya\u015f \u00fczerindeki i\u015f\u00e7ileri \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131raca\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret ediyor. B\u00f6ylece bu i\u015f\u00e7ilerin k\u00f6t\u00fc hastal\u0131klara yakalanma zaman\u0131 olmayacakt\u0131r!<\/p>\n

2) Bir\u00e7ok reakt\u00f6r ya niteliksiz i\u015f\u00e7i ya da g\u00f6\u00e7men i\u015f\u00e7i \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yor. Bu i\u015f\u00e7iler \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek \u00fccretlerle, radyasyonun ye\u011fin oldu\u011fu b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerde k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemlerle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor. Bir reakt\u00f6rde yasal maksimum dozu ald\u0131ktan sonra (bazen yaln\u0131zca bir g\u00fcnde) ba\u015fka bir reakt\u00f6rde i\u015fe al\u0131n\u0131rlar. Yeni reakt\u00f6rde de kendilerine daha \u00f6nce ne denli radyasyon dozu ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 sorulmaz. Reakt\u00f6rler tam g\u00fcn i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin \u201cv\u00fccut bankalar\u0131n\u0131\u201d korumak amac\u0131yla ge\u00e7ici i\u015f\u00e7ileri kiralar. New York eyaletindeki West Valley n\u00fckleer tesisleri art\u0131k \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131yor. Bu istasyona gerekli olan \u201ctaze v\u00fccutlar\u201d end\u00fcstrinin kirli i\u015flerini yapmak \u00fczere \u00e7evredeki barlardan ve kolejlerden toplan\u0131rd\u0131. Sa\u011fl\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan b\u00f6yle bir uygulama hi\u00e7 de g\u00fcvenceli de\u011fildir, yasa d\u0131\u015f\u0131 ilan edilmelidir.<\/p>\n

3) Bir zamanlar uranyum de\u011firmeninin \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 Colorado Grand Junction b\u00f6lgesinde kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t at\u0131klar\u0131 binlerce kilometre karelik bir alana yay\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olarak duruyordu. 1960\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131n ortalar\u0131na do\u011fru, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015fehirlerin bina y\u00fcklenicileri bu at\u0131klar\u0131 bina yap\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli a\u015famalar\u0131nda kullanmak gibi dahice bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce geli\u015ftirdiler! Okullar, hastaneler, \u00f6zel konutlar, yollar, hava liman\u0131 ve bir AVM yapt\u0131lar. 1970 y\u0131l\u0131nda o b\u00f6lgede g\u00f6rev yapan bir \u00e7ocuk doktoru, y\u00f6rede do\u011fmu\u015f olan bebekler aras\u0131nda yar\u0131k damak (cleft palate), yar\u0131k dudak (cleft lip) ve bir\u00e7ok genetik bozukluklar\u0131n artt\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat etmi\u015ftir. Bunun \u00fczerine yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, bu \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n radyoaktif at\u0131klarla yap\u0131lan evlerde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ve radyoaktif testi yap\u0131lan evlerin de \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek dozda radyasyon i\u00e7erdi\u011fini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bu bulgudan hemen sonra ABD \u00c7evre Koruma Ajans\u0131ndan (EPA – Environmental Protection Agency) parasal destek alan Colorado \u00dcniversitesi Sa\u011fl\u0131k Merkezi, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck d\u00fczey radyasyonla anadan do\u011fma bozukluklar aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiyi ara\u015ft\u0131rmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Ancak bir y\u0131l sonra bu ara\u015ft\u0131rmaya verilen parasal destek kesildi. Federal yetkililer b\u00fct\u00e7edeki k\u0131s\u0131tlamalar nedeniyle bir\u00e7ok ara\u015ft\u0131rma program\u0131n\u0131n kesilmesi gerekti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fcler. A\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7as\u0131, Federaller Grand Junction ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcrmesini istemediler. Bu t\u00fcr \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 \u00fcstlenmek bizim hem bu y\u00f6re hem de t\u00fcm d\u00fcnya \u00e7ocuklar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 olan vicdani sorumlulu\u011fumuzdur. Benzer bir gev\u015feklik de Avustralya\u2019da ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Japonya’da Fuku\u015fima N\u00fckleer Santrali’nde 2011 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki deprem ve tsunaminin ard\u0131ndan ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen felaketin etkileri \u0130zlanda’ya kadar eri\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

4) G\u00fcney Avustralya\u2019daki Port Pirie kasabas\u0131nda bir zamanlar devlete ait bir uranyum de\u011firmeni vard\u0131. Y\u0131llar s\u00fcren i\u015flemlerden sonra \u00e7evrede 250.000 metre karelik at\u0131k radyoaktif \u00f6zdek birikti. Bu at\u0131klar b\u00f6lgedeki bir al\u00e7alma-y\u00fckselme baraj\u0131na at\u0131ld\u0131. De\u011firmen kapand\u0131ktan sonra bu baraj b\u00f6lgesi \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n en \u00e7ok sevdi\u011fi kriket, bisiklete binme ve di\u011fer oyun alan\u0131 durumuna geldi. Ender toprak (rare earth) \u00f6zdekleri \u00fczerine uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f olan bir \u015firket 1960\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131n sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru bu de\u011firmeni sat\u0131n ald\u0131. D\u0131\u015f al\u0131mla elde etti\u011fi ender topraktan saf thorium rafine etmeye ve televizyon setlerinde kullan\u0131lmak \u00fczere Japonya\u2019ya d\u0131\u015f sat\u0131m yapmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. \u0130\u015flemlerin ba\u015flamas\u0131ndan hemen sonra Japonlar, bir gemi dolusu thorium \u00f6zde\u011fini giri\u015f liman\u0131ndan geriye \u00e7evirdi. Zorlu ge\u00e7en bir yolculuk s\u0131ras\u0131nda bir\u00e7ok f\u0131\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n par\u00e7aland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve gemiye thorium s\u0131zd\u0131\u011f\u0131 saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Radyasyonun olu\u015fturdu\u011fu \u00e7ekincelere kar\u015f\u0131 son derece duyarl\u0131 olan Japonlar mal\u0131 geri \u00e7evirdiler. Gemi Port Pirie\u2019ye geri d\u00f6nd\u00fc ve y\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fc derhal baraja bo\u015faltt\u0131. Baraj d\u00f6nemsel olarak deniz d\u00fczeyinin alt\u0131na d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyor ve deniz suyuyla doluyordu. Radyasyon da ku\u015fkusuz algae, mollusks ve bal\u0131k gibi deniz canl\u0131lar\u0131na ge\u00e7iyordu. Al\u00e7alma d\u00f6nemlerinde de \u00e7ocuklar baraja geliyor, bo\u015f thorium f\u0131\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 i\u00e7inde s\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcyor veya bal\u0131k avl\u0131yorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n

De\u011firmenin sat\u0131\u015f\u0131 1976 y\u0131l\u0131nda yeniden g\u00fcndeme gelince b\u00f6lgede radyasyon \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmleri yap\u0131ld\u0131 ve radyasyon dozunun, D\u00fcnya Sa\u011fl\u0131k \u00d6rg\u00fct\u00fc (WHO – World Health Organistaion) standartlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde oldu\u011fu bulundu. Bu tedirgin edici veriler bas\u0131na s\u0131z\u0131nca kamu isyan etti. Aileler \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131n l\u00f6semi veya di\u011fer kanser t\u00fcrlerine yakalanaca\u011f\u0131ndan korktu. H\u00fck\u00fcmet yetkilileri \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n tehlikede olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve olas\u0131 k\u00f6t\u00fc etkilere kar\u015f\u0131 d\u00fczenli sa\u011fl\u0131k denetiminden ge\u00e7melerine bile gerek olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fcler. Yetkililere g\u00fcvenmi\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcnen aileler olay\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcne gitmedi ve y\u00f6re insanlar\u0131 sa\u011fl\u0131k izlemesine al\u0131nmad\u0131.<\/p>\n

5) N\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6rlerin g\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u015flemleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda bir\u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck doz at\u0131k birikir. Bu s\u0131n\u0131flamadaki kat\u0131 at\u0131klar (kirlenmi\u015f giysi ve ayg\u0131tlar) gerekti\u011finde kolayca \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 amac\u0131yla fazla derine olmamak \u00fczere topra\u011fa g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bug\u00fcn ABD\u2019de 350.000 m3<\/sup> l\u00fck askeri ara\u015ft\u0131rma at\u0131\u011f\u0131 bulunmaktad\u0131r. Bunlar toplam 1100 kg pl\u00fctonyum i\u00e7eren at\u0131klard\u0131r. Bu at\u0131klardan ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan radyoaktif elementler ya\u011fmur arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla topra\u011fa s\u0131zar. Bunlara ek olarak \u015funu da s\u00f6yleyebiliriz: bu at\u0131klar \u00e7o\u011fu zaman yanl\u0131\u015f g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Y\u0131llar \u00f6nce Nevada\u2019daki bir bek\u00e7isiz i\u015faretsiz radyoaktif giysi mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan eldivenler, k\u00fcrekler ve har\u00e7 arabalar\u0131n\u0131n al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu saptand\u0131. Daha sonra bunlar\u0131, \u00e7ekincenin boyutlar\u0131ndan habersiz olan halk\u0131n kazarak \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

6) Eti insan t\u00fcketimine girmeyen hayvanlar da radyoaktif element ta\u015f\u0131y\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 olabilir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Hanford b\u00f6lgesinde yap\u0131lan bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma tav\u015fanlar\u0131n radyoaktiviteyi geni\u015f bir alana ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 saptad\u0131. Radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fc oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde kendilerine delik a\u00e7arak yiyecek arayan tav\u015fanlar buradaki radyoaktif maddeleri de yiyip \u00f6z\u00fcmsemi\u015flerdi. Daha sonra bu hayvanlar\u0131n d\u0131\u015fk\u0131lar\u0131 \u00fczerine yap\u0131lan incelemelerde radyoaktif izotoplar\u0131n izi g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fcr. Benzer izler radyoaktif tav\u015fanlar\u0131 yiyen kurt ve atmacalar\u0131n d\u0131\u015fk\u0131lar\u0131 ve kemiklerinde de g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc.<\/p>\n

7) 1000 Megawatt veya daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc reakt\u00f6rlerin s\u00f6k\u00fcl\u00fcp g\u00f6m\u00fclme i\u015flemi olanaks\u0131z olabilir. ABD\u2019deki en eski ticari reakt\u00f6r ve 17 ya\u015f\u0131ndayken onar\u0131lamayacak denli radyoaktif kirlenmeye u\u011frayan Commonwealth Edison\u2019s Dresden (Morris, Illinois) reakt\u00f6r\u00fc ne erke \u00fcretebiliyor ne de \u201cmozolesine\u201d gidebiliyor.<\/p>\n

8) N\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin 2000 y\u0131llar\u0131na yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan izd\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fc, o y\u0131llarda 152 milyon galonluk y\u00fcksek doz at\u0131\u011f\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6rmektedir. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki at\u0131k y\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fcn Yer\u2019deki n\u00fckleer mezarl\u0131klara kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 bile 2\u201320 milyar dolar aras\u0131 bir harcama gerektiriyor. Bu harcamalar\u0131 kim kar\u015f\u0131layacakt\u0131r? Bug\u00fcn bu soruya a\u00e7\u0131k bir yan\u0131t bulunam\u0131yor. N\u00fckleer erke istasyonlar\u0131 i\u015fletenler bu harcamalar\u0131 Amerikan h\u00fck\u00fcmetinin (yani vergi veren vatanda\u015flar\u0131n) kar\u015f\u0131lamas\u0131n\u0131 istiyor. Bir reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn \u00f6l\u00fcm sonras\u0131 s\u00f6k\u00fclmesi ve at\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda harcanan dolarlar\u0131 hesaba katmayan i\u015fletmeciler, kamuyu \u201cucuz\u201d erke se\u00e7ene\u011fi aldatmacas\u0131yla oyal\u0131yorlar. N\u00fckleer erke t\u00fcm a\u015famalar\u0131yla ele al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ucuz olmak \u015f\u00f6yle dursun, gizli giderleri ve sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131za sundu\u011fu \u00e7ekinceleriyle yan\u0131na yakla\u015f\u0131lacak gibi de\u011fildir. Bu teknoloji ne ucuz ne temiz ne de g\u00fcvenlidir!<\/p>\n

\"\"
Fuku\u015fima Santrali yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda ya\u015fayan halk felaketten sonra radyasyon taramas\u0131ndan ge\u00e7irildi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

9) Pl\u00fctonyum kirlenmesi yaln\u0131zca gelece\u011fin bir sorunu de\u011fildir. Bug\u00fcn de bu \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl elementin etkisi alt\u0131nda bulunuyoruz. Colorado eyaletinin Boulder kentindeki Ulusal Atmosfer Ara\u015ft\u0131rma Merkezi\u2019nin 1975 y\u0131l\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir ara\u015ft\u0131rma sonucunda, 5 ton pl\u00fctonyumun d\u00fcnya atmosferinde ince bir tabaka bi\u00e7iminde yay\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 saptand\u0131. N\u00fckleer bomba testleri, uydular\u0131n Yer atmosferine giri\u015f ve \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flar\u0131, n\u00fckleer erke istasyonlar\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan s\u0131z\u0131nt\u0131lar, kaza yang\u0131nlar\u0131, patlamalar, d\u00f6k\u00fclmeler ve s\u0131z\u0131nt\u0131lar sonucunda bug\u00fcnk\u00fc kirlenmeye gelinmi\u015ftir. Sonu\u00e7ta, bug\u00fcn kuzey yar\u0131m k\u00fcrede ya\u015fayan insanlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu \u00fcreme organlar\u0131nda belli niceliklerde pl\u00fctonyum ta\u015f\u0131r duruma gelmi\u015ftir. E\u011fer n\u00fcfusun yo\u011fun oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde pl\u00fctonyum kirlenmesi s\u00fcrerse, gelecek nesiller \u00fczerindeki etkisinin boyutlar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015flenemeyecek denli korkun\u00e7 olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

GELECE\u011e\u0130N \u2018UCUZ\u2019 VE \u2018TEM\u0130Z\u2019 ERKE KAYNA\u011eI N\u00dcKLEER SANTRALLER DE\u011e\u0130LD\u0130R!<\/strong><\/h4>\n

Daha neler var neler\u2026! Caldicott, n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin \u201cayakkab\u0131 kutular\u0131\u201dn\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 da Nuclear Power is Not The Answer<\/em> adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda (The New Press, NY, London, 2006) dile getiriyor. Kitaptan bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da sunuyorum.<\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn erke maliyeti<\/strong><\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 asl\u0131nda nedir? N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7, suyu kaynatman\u0131n olduk\u00e7a pahal\u0131, karma\u015f\u0131k ve tehlikeli bir yoludur. Uranyum yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011finde suyun i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilir, uranyum kritik k\u00fctleye ula\u015f\u0131r ve devasa niceliklerde \u0131s\u0131 \u00fcretilir ve su buharla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. \u00dcretilen buhar, borularla t\u00fcrbine y\u00f6nlendirilir ve d\u00f6nen t\u00fcrbin elektrik \u00fcretir. Manhattan Projesine kat\u0131lan biliminsanlar\u0131 n\u00fckleer silah \u00fcretiminin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra n\u00fckleer erkeyi kullanarak elektrik \u00fcretimini de sa\u011flad\u0131lar. Bu biliminsanlar\u0131n\u0131n i\u015fledi\u011fi su\u00e7 o denli b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fc ki, g\u00fcnahlar\u0131n\u0131 azaltmak i\u00e7in bu \u00fcrk\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fc bulgular\u0131n\u0131 insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131na sunmak istediler. (1) N\u00fckleer fizyon \u201cbar\u0131\u015f i\u00e7in atom\u201d olana\u011f\u0131 sundu\u011fundan ve n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 end\u00fcstrisi n\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn sonsuz elektrik -bu elektri\u011fe \u201cg\u00fcne\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131 birimi\u201d deniyor- erkesi sa\u011flayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, \u00e7evre i\u00e7in yararl\u0131 ve \u201c\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm\u00fc de \u00e7ok ucuz\u201d oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fcyor.<\/p>\n

Bu savlar\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrenler yanl\u0131\u015f yap\u0131yorlar. Evet, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonu karbondioksit salm\u0131yor. N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 ile elektrik \u00fcretimi devasa boyutlarda, karma\u015f\u0131k ve gizli bir altyap\u0131yla ger\u00e7ekle\u015fiyor ve bu altyap\u0131n\u0131n n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri propagandalar\u0131nda s\u00f6z\u00fc edilmiyor. Bu end\u00fcstri asl\u0131nda devasa niceliklerde karbon dioksit ve k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan di\u011fer gazlar\u0131 da \u00fcretiyor. Yap\u0131lan propagandalarla, n\u00fckleer santrallerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z erke \u00fcreticisi oldu\u011funa inanmam\u0131z isteniyor. Asl\u0131nda, n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi ad\u0131 verilen n\u00fckleer erkenin \u00fcretilebilmesi i\u00e7in gerekli olan devasa altyap\u0131, fosil yak\u0131tlar\u0131 ve k\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc devasa boyutlarda kullan\u0131yor.<\/p>\n

Karbondioksit \u00fcretimi, n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi \u00fcretiminde kullan\u0131lan erke niceli\u011finin bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm\u00fcd\u00fcr. N\u00fckleer erke \u00fcretimi amac\u0131yla kullan\u0131lan erkenin \u00e7o\u011fu fosil yak\u0131t, yani k\u00f6m\u00fcr ve petrol t\u00fcketiminden elde edilir – n\u00fckleer santrallerde kullan\u0131lacak olan uranyum yak\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n maden ocaklar\u0131ndan kaz\u0131l\u0131p \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131, \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan madendeki cevherin par\u00e7alan\u0131p \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmesi, uranyumun zenginle\u015ftirilmesi, reakt\u00f6r i\u00e7in beton ve \u00e7eli\u011fin \u00fcretilmesi, \u0131s\u0131sal ve radyoaktif olan kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n depolanmas\u0131. Erke \u00fcretmek i\u00e7in bu materyallerin yak\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda karbondioksit \u00fcretilir (An\u0131msanaca\u011f\u0131 gibi, k\u00f6m\u00fcr ve petrol\u00fcn kayna\u011f\u0131 Yer kabu\u011fu alt\u0131nda milyonlarca y\u0131l yatan eski a\u011fa\u00e7lar ve organik karboniferus materyallerdir). Yanan karbon atmosfere karbondioksit salar ve bu ya\u015fanan k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nman\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Karbondioksit ve di\u011fer gazlar alt atmosferde veya troposferde dolan\u0131p durur, Yer\u2019i bir battaniye gibi \u00f6rter ve bu gazl\u0131 katman t\u0131pk\u0131 seradaki cam gibi davran\u0131r. G\u00fcne\u015fin g\u00f6rsel b\u00f6lgede sald\u0131\u011f\u0131 beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131k Yer atmosferine gelir, ge\u00e7er, Yery\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc \u0131s\u0131t\u0131r, \u0131s\u0131nan Yery\u00fcz\u00fcnden geriye sal\u0131nan k\u0131z\u0131l\u00f6te \u0131s\u0131sal \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m atmosferde tuzaklanm\u0131\u015f olan bu gazl\u0131 tabakay\u0131 ge\u00e7emez. K\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nma (2) olay\u0131n\u0131n %50 denlisinden karbondioksit, geriye kalan\u0131ndan da di\u011fer ender gazlar (3) sorumludur.<\/p>\n

E\u011fer n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 di\u011fer erke kaynaklar\u0131yla d\u00fcr\u00fcst bir bi\u00e7imde kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lacaksa, n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evriminin toplam erke girdisi -n\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn erke ederi- a\u00e7\u0131k ve d\u00fcr\u00fcst\u00e7e hesaplanmal\u0131d\u0131r. N\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn toplam \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc ve erke girdisiyle erke \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleyen yaln\u0131zca birka\u00e7 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n en iyisi Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen ve Philip Smith\u2019in \u201cN\u00fckleer G\u00fc\u00e7 – Erke Dengesi\u201d (Nuclear Power – Energy Balance) ba\u015fl\u0131kl\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131d\u0131r. Yazarlar\u0131n bu uzun \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemesinden \u00e7\u0131kan sonu\u00e7 \u015f\u00f6yle: \u201cN\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 kullan\u0131m\u0131 en iyi ko\u015fullarda ve santral\u0131n \u00f6mr\u00fc sonunda atmosfere sald\u0131\u011f\u0131 karbondioksit niceli\u011fi, gaz yak\u0131t\u0131yla \u00fcretilen elektrik santrallerinin sald\u0131\u011f\u0131 karbondioksit niceli\u011finin yakla\u015f\u0131k \u00fc\u00e7te biri denlidir. Karbondioksitin 1\/3 oran\u0131nda sal\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayacak zengin uranyum madenleri o denli azd\u0131r ki, e\u011fer t\u00fcm d\u00fcnyan\u0131n elektrik gereksinimi n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7le kar\u015f\u0131lanacaksa, zengin uranyum madenleri dokuz y\u0131lda t\u00fckenecektir. Geriye kalan daha ender uranyum i\u00e7eren madenlerden elde edilecek olan uranyum n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6rlerde kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, atmosfere sal\u0131nacak olan karbon dioksit, fosil yak\u0131tlar kullanarak elektrik \u00fcreten santrallerinkinden daha fazla olacakt\u0131r.\u201d (4) Bu ba\u011flamda bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6rlerin etkili olmayan, karma\u015f\u0131k ve pahal\u0131 gaz yak\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131 oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor. (5)<\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi \u00e7ok ilgin\u00e7 ve karma\u015f\u0131k a\u015famalardan olu\u015fuyor; bu a\u015famalar\u0131n her biri kendi erke harcamalar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131lanmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektiriyor.<\/p>\n

Uranyum madencili\u011fi ve \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmesi<\/strong><\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer erke ile ili\u015fkili en b\u00fcy\u00fck ve ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz erke maliyeti, uranyum yak\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n madencili\u011fi ve \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclme i\u015flemindeki maliyettir. D\u00fcnyan\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fik madenlerinde varolan uranyum de\u011fi\u015fik kalitededir. %0,1 denli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kaliteli uranyum konsantrasyonu i\u00e7eren bir madenden uranyum yak\u0131t\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in gerekli olan erke niceli\u011fi, uranyum konsantrasyonu %1 olan madende harcanan erke niceli\u011finin 10 kat\u0131d\u0131r. K\u0131sacas\u0131, orijinal maden cevherinden uranyum yak\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli olan erke maliyeti b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde madenin kalitesine ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Uranyum madeninin kaz\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan erke fosil yak\u0131tt\u0131r -n\u00fckleer erke yanda\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n kullan\u0131lmamas\u0131 i\u00e7in \u00e7\u0131\u011fl\u0131k att\u0131\u011f\u0131 fosil yak\u0131t- ve bu karbondioksit \u00fcretiminin ba\u015f sorumlusudur.<\/p>\n

Uranyum madeni \u00e7\u0131karma s\u00fcrecinde \u00f6yle bir a\u015fama vard\u0131r ki, uranyum konsantrasyonu \u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck oldu\u011fundan seyreltik uranyum cevherini \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in gerekli olan erke, n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn \u00fcretti\u011fi erke niceli\u011finden daha fazlad\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, bir tek n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131na yak\u0131t olu\u015fturmak i\u00e7in Yer kabu\u011fundan her y\u0131l 162 ton do\u011fal uranyumun \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekir. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kaliteli uranyum granit cevherindeyse, di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, 1 ton granit kayas\u0131nda 4 gram uranyum varsa (%0,0004) madenden 40 milyon ton granitin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekir. Bu granit kaya \u00e7ok ince toz haline \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fcl\u00fcp, s\u00fclf\u00fcrik asit ve di\u011fer kimyasallarla kimyasal i\u015fleme sokulup i\u00e7indeki uranyum madeni \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131r. Granitten uranyumun \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u015fleminin kapasitesinin %50 oldu\u011funu (ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i olmayan y\u00fcksek bir rakam) varsayarsak 80 milyon ton granitin i\u015fleme girmesi gerekiyor. Bu devasa granit kayan\u0131n oylumu, y\u00fcz metre y\u00fckseklikte ve 3 kilometre uzunluktad\u0131r. Uranyumun bu devasa boyutlardaki granit kayadan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli olan erke, \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan uranyumun n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6rde \u00fcretece\u011fi erkeden 30 kez daha fazlad\u0131r. (6)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde y\u00fcksek kaliteli uranyum madenleri s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r – 3,5 milyon ton. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz rakamlar\u0131yla, uranyumun y\u0131ll\u0131k kullan\u0131m niceli\u011fi yakla\u015f\u0131k 67.000 tondur. G\u00fcnl\u00fck \u00fcretim d\u00fczeyinin korunmas\u0131 durumunda bu rezervler 50 y\u0131l daha n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 sa\u011flayacakt\u0131r (e\u011fer t\u00fcm d\u00fcnyan\u0131n elektrik gereksinimi n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 ile kar\u015f\u0131lanacaksa, yaln\u0131zca 9 y\u0131l). Y\u00fcksek ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck doz uranyum rezervlerinin toplam\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k olarak 14,4 milyon ton olarak hesaplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak bu rezervlerin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 son derece pahal\u0131ya mal olacak ve ayr\u0131ca cevherlerin kalitesi elektrik \u00fcretimi i\u00e7in uygun olamayacak denli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck olacakt\u0131r. Bu nedenle uranyum madenlerinin \u00e7o\u011fu zaten kullan\u0131lm\u0131yor. (7)<\/p>\n

Uranyum madeninin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 ve \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmesi karma\u015f\u0131k bir s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Uranyum i\u00e7eren kayan\u0131n buldozerlerle ve kep\u00e7elerle kaz\u0131lmas\u0131 ve sonra \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclece\u011fi fabrikalara t\u0131rlarla ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131 gerekir. Bu makinelerin hepsi dizel yak\u0131t kullan\u0131r. Dahas\u0131, bu ara\u00e7lar\u0131 sa\u011flayan ofisin bak\u0131m birimi elektrik ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla petrol yak\u0131t t\u00fcketir. Uranyum i\u00e7eren kaya elektrikle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan de\u011firmenlerde par\u00e7alan\u0131p toz haline getirilir; bu toz, genellikle uranyum sar\u0131 kek ad\u0131 verilen bile\u015fi\u011fe d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7 s\u0131ras\u0131nda da buhar ve \u0131s\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015f gaz \u00fcretmek i\u00e7in yak\u0131ta gereksinim vard\u0131r ve \u00f6\u011f\u00fctme i\u015fleminde kullan\u0131lan kimyasallar di\u011fer kimyasal i\u015fletmelerde \u00fcretilmelidir.<\/p>\n

\u00d6\u011f\u00fctme s\u00fcrecindeki \u00f6zg\u00fcn erke maliyeti, iki t\u00fcr uranyum cevherinin hangi t\u00fcrden oldu\u011funa ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Yumu\u015fak uranyum cevheri i\u00e7eren, kumta\u015f\u0131 (sandstone), tortulu \u015fist (shales) ve kalkrit (calcretes) i\u00e7indeki uranyum niceli\u011fi %10 – %0,01 aral\u0131\u011f\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fir. Bu i\u015flemde \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan bir ton i\u00e7in 2,33 gigajoule (1 gigajoule = 1 milyar joule) erkeye gereksinim vard\u0131r. (8) Kuvars \u00e7ak\u0131l k\u00fcmesi (quartz pebble conglomerates) ve granit i\u00e7indeki kalitesi %0,1 – %0,001 aral\u0131\u011f\u0131nda olan sert uranyum cevheri i\u00e7in gerekli erke ton ba\u015f\u0131na 5,5 gigajoule denlidir. Her iki durumda da, uranyum cevherinin kalitesi %0,01 d\u00fczeylerindeyse n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi erke a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00fcretken olamaz, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kalite cevherin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 ve \u00f6\u011f\u00fct\u00fclmesi i\u00e7in harcanan erke \u00e7ok fazlad\u0131r. (9)<\/p>\n

\u00d6\u011f\u00fctme i\u015fleminden arda kalan tortular<\/strong><\/p>\n

E\u011fer \u00f6\u011f\u00fctme i\u015finden arda kalan tortular ortadan g\u00fcvenilir bir bi\u00e7imde kald\u0131r\u0131lacaksa, ki kald\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r, bu i\u015flem i\u00e7in de devasa niceliklerde fosil yak\u0131t kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekiyor. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde milyonlarca ton radyoaktif materyal, \u00e7o\u011fu zaman yerli kabilelerin ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00f6lgelere at\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu elementler havaya ve suya radyasyon salmaktad\u0131r, oysa ki, uranyumun orijinal olarak bulundu\u011fu toprak alt\u0131 derinliklere g\u00f6m\u00fclmeleri gerekiyordu. D\u00fcr\u00fcst\u00e7e ve adil olarak yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gereken bu radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n ortadan kald\u0131rma i\u015flemi bile tek ba\u015f\u0131na n\u00fckleer erkeyle elektrik \u00fcretimin maliyetini a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde y\u00fckseltiyor. (10)<\/p>\n

S\u00f6z\u00fc edilen bu tortular\u0131n<\/p>\n

– Kalkerle (kire\u00e7 ta\u015f\u0131) n\u00f6trle\u015ftirilmesi;<\/p>\n

– Bentonite ile kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131larak yeralt\u0131 sular\u0131na bula\u015fmayacak bi\u00e7imde devinimsiz duruma getirilmeleri;<\/p>\n

– Geriye, \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 madene ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131p yerle\u015ftirilmesi;<\/p>\n

– \u00dczeri ta\u015f\u0131yabilece\u011finden fazla toprakla \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fcp o y\u00f6rede yeti\u015fen bitkilerle (endojen) \u00f6rt\u00fclmesi gerekiyor.<\/p>\n

Bu tortular\u0131n g\u00fcvenilir bir bi\u00e7imde ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in harcanmas\u0131 gereken erke, 1 ton tortu i\u00e7in 4,2 gigajoule denlidir ki, bu da 1 ton orijinal madenin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in harcanan 1,06 gigajoule erkenin 4 kat\u0131d\u0131r. Ortadan kald\u0131rma i\u015flemi \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck niceliklerde fosil yak\u0131t harcanmas\u0131na ve daha fazla karbondioksit \u00fcretilmesine neden olacakt\u0131r. (11)<\/p>\n

Uranyumun uranyum hegzafloride d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesi<\/strong><\/p>\n

Uranyum zenginle\u015ftirilmeden \u00f6nce uranyum hegzaflorid gaza d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmelidir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc, fizyona girebilen uranyum 235 izotopunun fizyona giremeyen uranyum 238 izotopundan ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilmesi i\u00e7in hegzaflorid gaza d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f olmas\u0131 gerekiyor. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fck s\u0131cakl\u0131klarda gaz durumunda olan tek uranyum bile\u015fi\u011fi uranyum hegzafloriddir ve bu nedenle \u00fczerinde kolayca i\u015flem yap\u0131labilir. Bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm i\u00e7in gerekli erke, 1 kilogram uranyum i\u00e7in 1,478 gigajoule denlidir.<\/p>\n

Uranyumun zenginle\u015ftirilmesi<\/strong><\/p>\n

%0,7 – %3 denli uranyum 235 i\u00e7eren bir topaktan zenginle\u015ftirme i\u015flemi de devasa boyutlarda erke t\u00fcketimi gerektiren bir s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Zenginle\u015ftirme s\u00fcrecinin erke harcamalar\u0131, zenginle\u015ftirme fabrikas\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131, i\u015fletimi ve bak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 kapsar. Uranyum, bir veya iki temel y\u00f6ntemle zenginle\u015ftirilir -gaz dif\u00fczyonu (gaseous diffusion) ve ultrasentrf\u00fcj (ultracentrifuge)- her iki y\u00f6ntem de devasa boyutlarda erke harcamay\u0131 gerektirir. Ultrasentrf\u00fcj ile zenginle\u015ftirme daha az erke maliyeti gerektirir, ancak bu y\u00f6ntemle zenginle\u015ftirme i\u015flemi ve ayg\u0131t bak\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli maliyet gaz dif\u00fczyonu y\u00f6ntemininkinden \u00e7ok daha fazlad\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc sentrf\u00fcj\u00fcn teknik a\u00e7\u0131dan \u00f6mr\u00fc k\u0131sad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

ABD\u2019de zenginle\u015ftirme kurulu\u015flar\u0131 tarihsel olarak Paducah, Kentucky ve Portsmouth-Ohio\u2019da bulunuyor. \u0130\u015flem d\u0131\u015f\u0131 b\u0131rak\u0131lan zenginle\u015ftirme kurulu\u015fu da Oak Ridge, Tennessee\u2019dedir. Ancak 2001 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u00f6zel bir \u015firket olan United States Enrichment Corp. Paducah\u2019taki zenginle\u015ftirme i\u015flemlerine yeniden ba\u015flad\u0131. Paducah zenginle\u015ftirme kurulu\u015fu i\u015flemlerini yapabilmek i\u00e7in gereksinim duydu\u011fu elektri\u011fi iki tane eski ve kirli, 1000 megawatt g\u00fcc\u00fcnde, k\u00f6m\u00fcrle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ve atmosfere b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7eklerde karbondioksit salan santrallerdean al\u0131yor. (12) Son zamanlarda da ABD Erke Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan (U.S. Department of Energy) a\u00e7\u0131klanan bilgiye g\u00f6re, CFC 114 gaz\u0131 -k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan ve stratosferdeki ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131 bozan kloroflorokarbon gaz- Ohio\u2019daki i\u015fletmenin benzeri olan Paducah uranyum zenginle\u015ftirme kurulu\u015funda kullan\u0131lan y\u00fczlerce mil uzunlu\u011fundaki so\u011futucu borulardan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir g\u00fc\u00e7le f\u0131\u015fk\u0131r\u0131yor. (13)<\/p>\n

Zenginle\u015ftirme i\u015fleminin kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc erke maliyeti \u201cayr\u0131 i\u015f birimi\u201d (SWU – seperative work unit) ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcr. D\u00fcnyada kullan\u0131lan iki ayr\u0131 y\u00f6ntemin ortalama -%30 gaz dif\u00fczyonu ve %70 ultrasentrf\u00fcj- erke maliyeti, 1000 SWU i\u00e7in 0,0055 petajoule denlidir (1 petajoule = 1 milyon milyar joule denlidir). (14)<\/p>\n

Yak\u0131t\u00a0 \u00f6\u011fesi\u00a0 \u00fcretimi<\/strong><\/p>\n

Zenginle\u015ftirilmi\u015f olan uranyum hegzaflorid gaz\u0131ndan, sigara filtresi b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde ve kat\u0131 yak\u0131t topaklar\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde uranyum oksit \u00fcretilir. Bu uranyum topaklar\u0131 3,5 metre boyunda ve 2,5 cm kal\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131ndaki zirkonium yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilir. 1000 megawatl\u0131k bir reakt\u00f6rde bu yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131ndan 50.000 tane vard\u0131r – yakla\u015f\u0131k 100 ton uranyum. Bu yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcretiminde yine fosil yak\u0131tlar kullan\u0131l\u0131r ve 1 ton uranyum i\u00e7in harcanan \u00f6zg\u00fcn erke 0,00379 petajoule denlidir.<\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yap\u0131m\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

ABD\u2019deki b\u00fct\u00fcn n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santralleri 1980-1985 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti ve 1978 y\u0131l\u0131ndan beri yeni bir santral sipari\u015fi verilmedi. Bir n\u00fckleer santral in\u015faat\u0131 i\u00e7in devasa niceliklerde mal ve servis gerekiyor. N\u00fckleer teknoloji, devasa \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde sanayi ve ekonomik altyap\u0131 gerektiren bir y\u00fcksek teknolojidir. Reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn in\u015fas\u0131 i\u00e7in devasa \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde beton ve \u00e7elik kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Dahas\u0131, Three Mile Island ve Chernobyl kazalar\u0131ndan sonra g\u00fcvenlik \u00f6nlemleri n\u00fckleer santral yap\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 daha da karma\u015f\u0131k duruma getirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r in\u015faat\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli erke maliyeti 40-120 petajoule denlidir. Storm van Leeuwen ve Smith\u2019in \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda ortalama 80 petajoule de\u011feri kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r etkinli\u011fine son verme ve s\u00f6k\u00fcm<\/strong><\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r i\u015flem \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc t\u00fcketip kapand\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, fizyon s\u00fcrecinde \u00fcretilen n\u00f6tron bombard\u0131man\u0131 nedeniyle reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7eren \u00f6ze\u011finde olduk\u00e7a ye\u011fin radyoaktif \u00fcr\u00fcnler olan Kobalt 60 ve Demir 55 birikir. Reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn s\u00f6k\u00fcm i\u015flemine ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce bu radyoaktif elementlerin bozunmas\u0131na izin verilmelidir. Radyoaktif, sa\u011fl\u0131\u011fa olduk\u00e7a \u00e7ekinceli ve kirletici di\u011fer art\u0131k kal\u0131nt\u0131lar, tritium, karbon 14, kalsiyum 41 dir. (15) K\u0131sacas\u0131, bu devasa, ye\u011fin radyoaktif mozolenin s\u00f6k\u00fcm i\u015flemine ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce, herhangi bir hasara kar\u015f\u0131 korunmas\u0131, izinsiz girilmesinin engellenmesi 10-100 y\u0131l s\u00fcrecektir.<\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r etkinli\u011fine son verme ve s\u00f6k\u00fcm i\u015flemlerinde izlenen a\u015famalar:<\/p>\n

– Kapatma i\u015fleminden sonra g\u00fcvenlikli koruma d\u00f6neminde i\u015flemler ve bak\u0131m;<\/p>\n

– S\u00f6k\u00fcm i\u015flemine ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn radyoaktif b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerinin temizlenmesi;<\/p>\n

– Radyoaktif bile\u015fiklerin ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131;<\/p>\n

– S\u00f6k\u00fcm;<\/p>\n

– S\u00f6k\u00fclen at\u0131klar\u0131n paketlenmesi ve s\u00fcrekli depolanmas\u0131.<\/p>\n

Radyoaktif bozunma s\u00fcrecine yeterince uzun zaman tan\u0131nd\u0131ktan sonra reakt\u00f6r ya insanlar taraf\u0131ndan veya uzaktan kumanda y\u00f6ntemiyle k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck par\u00e7alara ayr\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r. Radyoaktivitesi s\u00fcren par\u00e7alar, reakt\u00f6rden uzak bir y\u00f6rede g\u00f6m\u00fclmek \u00fczere iri sand\u0131klara konup ta\u015f\u0131nmal\u0131d\u0131r. Bug\u00fcne dek, b\u00fcy\u00fck bir n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonunun uzunca s\u00fcren \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc tamamlad\u0131ktan sonra tamamen s\u00f6k\u00fcl\u00fcp mezar\u0131na g\u00f6m\u00fclme i\u015flemi yap\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, i\u015fleme son verme ve s\u00f6kmenin erke maliyet de\u011ferlendirilmesine ili\u015fkin \u00e7ok az deneyim sahibiyiz. Ancak, az da olsa elimizdeki veriler, bu i\u015flemlerin erke ederinin 80-160 petajoule denli olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyor; en olas\u0131 de\u011ferlendirme de 160 petajoule\u2019e yak\u0131n bir de\u011ferdir. (16) Geleneksel k\u00f6m\u00fcr veya gaz ile i\u015fletilen santraller, herhangi bir binan\u0131n s\u00f6k\u00fclme i\u015flemi gibi s\u00f6k\u00fcl\u00fcr \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu santraller radyoaktif de\u011fildir ve bu nedenle kamu sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve g\u00fcvenli\u011fine \u00e7ekince olu\u015fturmazlar. S\u00f6k\u00fclen materyaller, moloz ve \u0131skartalar yeniden kullan\u0131labilir. Bir kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma amac\u0131yla: gaz ile i\u015flem yapan bir santral\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131 ve s\u00f6k\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00e7in 24 petajoule denli erkeye gereksinim vard\u0131r. Bir n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131 ve s\u00f6k\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00e7inse 240 petajoule gerekiyor.<\/p>\n

Temizlik<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u0130\u015fletim \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fcn sonunda reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn CRUD (Chalk River Unidentified Deposits; bu ad\u0131n verilme nedeni radyoaktif elementlerin ilk kez Chalk River reakt\u00f6r\u00fcnde g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r) ad\u0131 verilen b\u00fcy\u00fck niceliklerde birikmi\u015f olan radyoaktif elementlerden temizlenmesi gerekir. CRUD, reakt\u00f6rdeki radyoaktif elementlerin tamam\u0131d\u0131r. Bu radyoaktif elementler so\u011futma sisteminden s\u0131zan olduk\u00e7a radyoaktif fizyon ve \u201caktinid\u201d elementlerinden ve hasar g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f olan yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r. Santral i\u015flemine son verme ve s\u00f6k\u00fcm i\u015flemine girmeyen bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, erke harcan\u0131m a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan olduk\u00e7a pahal\u0131d\u0131r ve reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yap\u0131m maliyetinin %50 denlisi, yani 20-60 petajoule\u2019dur. (17)<\/p>\n

So\u011futma suyu: Tritium ve Karbon 14 <\/strong><\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011fini so\u011futan su Tritium (radyoaktif hidrojen) ve Karbon 14 ile yo\u011fun bir bi\u00e7imde kirletilir. Bu kirlenmenin uzun erimde neden olaca\u011f\u0131 sa\u011fl\u0131k ve ekolojik etkileri yeterince bilinmiyor ve gerek n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri sorumlular\u0131 gerekse bireyler bu konuyu g\u00fcndeme getirmiyor. Tritiumun radyoaktif \u00f6mr\u00fc 200 y\u0131ldan fazlad\u0131r; Karbon 14\u2019\u00fcn radyoaktif ya\u015fam\u0131ysa 114.600 y\u0131ld\u0131r. S\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclebilir bir erke dizgesi Tritium ve Karbon 14 \u00fcn ekosfere s\u0131zmamas\u0131 i\u00e7in bir kapal\u0131 devre olu\u015fturmal\u0131d\u0131r. Kuramsal olarak so\u011futma suyu depolanmal\u0131, kurutucularla veya \u00e7imento ile devinimsiz duruma getirilmeli ve uzun \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc uygun kaplarda (container) saklanmal\u0131d\u0131r. Ancak g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde bu so\u011futucu su s\u00fcrekli olarak ve kayg\u0131s\u0131z bir bi\u00e7imde denizlere, halk\u0131n su gereksinimini kar\u015f\u0131layan g\u00f6llere ve nehirlere ak\u0131t\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. (18) Uygun ve gerekli at\u0131k y\u00f6ntemleri, \u00e7ok say\u0131da at\u0131k bidonlar\u0131n\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ve b\u00fcy\u00fck niceliklerde erke harcamalar\u0131 gerektiriyor.<\/p>\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, Tritium ve Karbon 14 izotopunun uzun erimde neden olaca\u011f\u0131 biyolojik \u00e7ekincelere ili\u015fkin yeterli bilgi olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan ve bu radyoaktif elementlerin n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonundan yal\u0131t\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli olan devasa niceliklerdeki harcamalar\u0131n boyutunun bilinmemesi nedeniyle, bu izotoplar\u0131n \u00e7evreye sal\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131 engelleyecek erke maliyetine ili\u015fkin sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 bir de\u011ferlendirme yap\u0131lam\u0131yor. Bu nedenle, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santrallerinin erke ve ekonomik ederi ger\u00e7ek de\u011ferinin olduk\u00e7a alt\u0131nda hesaplan\u0131yor. (19)<\/p>\n

Radyoaktif at\u0131klardan kurtulma<\/strong><\/p>\n

Radyoaktif at\u0131klar, i\u00e7erdikleri radyoaktif elementlere ve radyoaktivite yo\u011funlu\u011funa g\u00f6re kabaca d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck doz, orta doz ve y\u00fcksek doz olarak s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor. Bu at\u0131klar\u0131 mezarlar\u0131na ta\u015f\u0131yacak olan 5 t\u00fcr \u00f6zg\u00fcn kaplar bulunuyor ve bu kaplar radyoaktivite s\u0131n\u0131flamas\u0131na g\u00f6re V1-V5 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor.V2-V4 kaplar\u0131nda bulunan radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n \u00fcretimi, kaplara doldurulu\u015fu, ta\u015f\u0131ta y\u00fcklenmesi ve ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli erke, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131m\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan erkeye denktir. Toplam maliyet, yukar\u0131da da de\u011finildi\u011fi gibi yakla\u015f\u0131k 20 petajoule denlidir. (20)<\/p>\n

Reakt\u00f6r at\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcvenilir bir bi\u00e7imde ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na ek olarak, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 ile elde edilen elektrik erke ederi, radyasyon salmaya devam eden yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7ici depolanmas\u0131n\u0131 da i\u00e7erir. Bir n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131nda \u00fcretilen radyasyonun ye\u011finli\u011fi inan\u0131lmas\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7 devasa boyutlardad\u0131r. Fizyon s\u00fcrecine girecek olan uranyum reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011finde 1 milyar kez daha fazla radyoaktiftir. (21) 1000 megawatt g\u00fcc\u00fcndeki bir n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7erdi\u011fi uzun-\u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc radyasyon, Hiro\u015fima\u2019ya at\u0131lan bomban\u0131n 1000 kat\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckteki bir bomban\u0131n patlamas\u0131yla \u00fcretilecek olan radyasyona denktir. Fizyon, \u00fcr\u00fcnleri yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n elektrik \u00fcretim etkinli\u011fini azaltacak \u015fekilde kirletti\u011fi i\u00e7in, her y\u0131l, radyoaktif yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7te biri reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011finden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Bu yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 o denli yo\u011fun radyasyon salar ki, bir tek yak\u0131t \u00e7ubu\u011funun yak\u0131n\u0131nda 1 saniye s\u00fcreyle duran bir ki\u015fi \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl dozda radyasyon al\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, bu \u00e7ubuklar son derece s\u0131cak olduklar\u0131 i\u00e7in 30-60 y\u0131l boyunca s\u0131k\u0131 bir \u015fekilde korunan binalarda depolanmal\u0131 ve s\u00fcrekli olarak hava veya suyla so\u011futulmal\u0131d\u0131r. E\u011fer bu yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 s\u00fcrekli olarak so\u011futulmazsa \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n zirconium kaplamas\u0131 a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 s\u0131cakl\u0131k nedeniyle ans\u0131z\u0131n ate\u015f alacak ve radyoaktif i\u00e7eri\u011fini \u00e7evreye salacakt\u0131r. En son a\u015famada, yeterli so\u011futma d\u00f6neminden sonra yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 uzaktan kumanda y\u00f6ntemiyle kaplara yerle\u015ftirilmelidir.<\/p>\n

Bu olduk\u00e7a \u00f6zel kaplar\u0131n \u00fcretiminde kullan\u0131lan erke reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn \u00fcretiminde kullan\u0131lan erkeye denktir; toplam 1 ton kap i\u00e7in harcanan erke 80 gigajoule denlidir. \u0130\u015fin k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fc, kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n paketlenme i\u015flemi tamamen yeni ve hen\u00fcz s\u0131nav\u0131 ge\u00e7memi\u015f bir teknoloji olup, i\u015flem s\u0131ras\u0131nda elde edilmi\u015f veriden yoksundur. (22)<\/p>\n

Y\u00fcksek doz ve orta doz at\u0131klar\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131 ve 240.000 y\u0131l boyunca uzun d\u00f6nem depolanmas\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evriminin bu a\u015famas\u0131na ili\u015fkin hesaplama hen\u00fcz yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak \u015furas\u0131 kesin: radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n 240.000 y\u0131l gibi alg\u0131lanmas\u0131 zor bir zaman dilimi boyunca korunaca\u011f\u0131 uygun jeolojik y\u00f6relerin haz\u0131rlanmas\u0131, at\u0131klar\u0131n depolanmas\u0131, g\u00f6zetime al\u0131nmas\u0131 gerekiyor. Bu a\u015famalarda, depolara gidecek ula\u015f\u0131m ara\u00e7lar\u0131 uzun y\u0131llar boyunca insanlar\u0131n ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kasaba ve \u015fehirlerden ge\u00e7erek devasa niceliklerde fosil yak\u0131t t\u00fcketeceklerdir. (23)<\/p>\n

Global erke end\u00fcstrisinin erke eder de\u011ferlendirmeleri k\u00f6t\u00fc bir \u015fekilde ve s\u00fcrekli yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, BP-Amoco \u015firketinin 2005 y\u0131l\u0131 d\u00fcnya erke kaynaklar\u0131 de\u011ferlendirmesinde yaln\u0131zca n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santrallerinin toplam elektrik \u00fcretimi basit bir bi\u00e7imde de\u011ferlendirilmi\u015f, ancak n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t zincirinin toplam erke t\u00fcketimi hesaplamaya kat\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (24)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Asl\u0131nda, radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131 ve depolanmas\u0131na ili\u015fkin erke eder de\u011ferlendirmesini dikkate almaks\u0131z\u0131n n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evriminin erke ederine uranyum cevherinin madenlerden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131, reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn in\u015fas\u0131 ve \u00f6mr\u00fc sonunda s\u00f6k\u00fclmesi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bakarsak, kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131za \u00e7\u0131kan rakam yakla\u015f\u0131k olarak 240 petajoule (24 milyon milyar joule) denlidir. N\u00fckleer santralle ayn\u0131 nicelikte elektrik \u00fcreten, gazla \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan bir santral\u0131n yap\u0131m ve uygulamas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli erke, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 santral\u0131n\u0131nkinin onda biri yani 24 petajoule denlidir. (25)<\/p>\n

Varolan en zengin uranyum cevherini de kullansa, bir n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonunun erke ederini kar\u015f\u0131layabilmek i\u00e7in on y\u0131l tam kapasite \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 gerekir. Yukar\u0131da da de\u011findi\u011fimiz gibi, uranyum 235 cevherini belli yo\u011funluklarda i\u00e7eren s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 say\u0131da kaynak var. Bu yo\u011funluk %0,01 in alt\u0131na d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonundan elde edilen erke \u00fcretimi, uranyumun madenlerden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131\u015f maliyetini kar\u015f\u0131layamaz ve n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi net erke sa\u011flayamaz; uranyum oran\u0131n\u0131n belli d\u00fczeyin alt\u0131nda olmas\u0131 durumunda n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonu, reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yap\u0131m\u0131, yak\u0131t\u0131, i\u015flemesi ve \u00e7evreye verdi\u011fi zarar\u0131n onar\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli erkeden daha az erke \u00fcretir. (26)<\/p>\n

Bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evriminin erke maliyetini \u015fimdilik bir kenara b\u0131rakal\u0131m ve n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonundan d\u0131\u015far\u0131ya \u201ctemiz ve ye\u015fil\u201d (clean and green) \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 iddias\u0131na de\u011finelim. N\u00fckleer end\u00fcstrinin iddia etti\u011fi gibi, n\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn sera etkisine neden olan gazlar\u0131n sal\u0131n\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 azaltmada b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131da bulunabilmesi i\u00e7in a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki ko\u015fullar\u0131 yerine getirmesi gerekiyor (bu \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleme, k\u00fcresel \u00e7apta elektrik gereksiniminde %2 oran\u0131nda art\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu varsayar):<\/p>\n

– G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde i\u015flerlikte olan t\u00fcm n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonlar\u0131n\u0131n -441 tane- yerine yenileri yap\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

– Elektrik erkesindeki b\u00fcy\u00fcmenin yar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 taraf\u0131ndan kar\u015f\u0131lanmas\u0131 gerekir.<\/p>\n

– D\u00fcnyadaki k\u00f6m\u00fcr yak\u0131tla \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan elektrik istasyonlar\u0131n\u0131n yar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n yerine n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonlar\u0131 ge\u00e7melidir. (27)<\/p>\n

Bu plana uyulmas\u0131 demek, \u00f6n\u00fcm\u00fczdeki elli y\u0131l i\u00e7erisinde 1000 watt g\u00fcc\u00fcnde 2-3 bin n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yap\u0131m\u0131 demektir, di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, 50 y\u0131l boyunca haftada 1 reakt\u00f6r! Yeni bir reakt\u00f6r\u00fcn yap\u0131m s\u00fcresinin 8-10 y\u0131l oldu\u011funu ve varolan uranyum yak\u0131t rezervlerinin k\u0131s\u0131tl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 dikkate al\u0131rsak, b\u00f6ylesi bir projenin ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesi olana\u011f\u0131 yoktur. (28)<\/p>\n

Van Leeuwen ve Smith\u2019in saptamalar\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u201curanyumun bilinen toplam rezervi \u00f6ylesine azd\u0131r ki, ki\u015fi kendisine, n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 nas\u0131l oluyor da devasa boyutlarda erke sa\u011flayabilece\u011fi s\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc verebiliyor sorusunu sormal\u0131d\u0131r\u201d. \u0130simleri ge\u00e7en yazarlar bu anormal durum i\u00e7in birka\u00e7 neden s\u0131ral\u0131yorlar:<\/p>\n

– N\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta h\u0131zl\u0131 n\u00f6tron \u201c\u00fcretici\u201d (breeder) reakt\u00f6rler \u00fcretilece\u011fini \u00f6ng\u00f6rd\u00fc. Bu t\u00fcr reakt\u00f6rler hem yak\u0131t \u00fcretecek hem de o yak\u0131t\u0131 kullanabilecek, kendi kendine yetebilen kapal\u0131 bir \u00e7evrim olu\u015fturacakt\u0131. Bu reakt\u00f6rler hen\u00fcz yap\u0131lamad\u0131.<\/p>\n

– N\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri n\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7le ilgili erke ederini ne hesaplad\u0131 ne de bu konuda bir fikri var.<\/p>\n

– Radyoaktif at\u0131klar\u0131n ne denli \u00e7ekinceli oldu\u011fu ve bu at\u0131klar\u0131n uzun erimde nas\u0131l ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 uzun y\u0131llar boyunca anla\u015f\u0131lamad\u0131.<\/p>\n

– %0,01 den daha az uranyum i\u00e7eren madenin net erke \u00fcretemeyece\u011fi de anla\u015f\u0131lamad\u0131.<\/p>\n

– N\u00fckleer g\u00fcc\u00fcn yarataca\u011f\u0131 \u00e7evre katliam\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fczeltilmesini gelecek nesillere b\u0131rakt\u0131lar. (29)<\/p>\n

Bu konudaki bilgilerin kamuya ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 nedeniyle n\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri devasa boyutlarda halkla ili\u015fkiler oyunlar\u0131 tertipliyor.<\/p>\n

Ama\u00e7lanan \u201cn\u00fckleer r\u00f6nesans\u201d i\u00e7in uranyumun yeterli olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 konusunda g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f ayr\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 var. Storm van Leeuwen ve Smith\u2019in \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemeleri \u015fu saptamada bulunuyor: D\u00fcnya N\u00fckleer Birli\u011fi (World Nuclear Association) de dahil olmak \u00fczere, uranyum madeninden \u00fcretilen uranyum cevher d\u00fczeyi ile \u00fcretilecek erke aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki \u00fczerine \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

ABD\u2019de askeri ama\u00e7larla kullan\u0131lan olduk\u00e7a zengin uranyum, n\u00fckleer reakt\u00f6rlerde kullan\u0131lmak \u00fczere, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck d\u00fczeyde zenginle\u015ftirilmi\u015f uranyum ile kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor. Ancak bu nicelik, y\u0131ll\u0131k uranyum gereksinimini yaln\u0131zca alt\u0131 y\u0131l boyunca kar\u015f\u0131layabilecektir. B\u00fcy\u00fck, zengin uranyum madeni kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin bir i\u015faret yok. Bug\u00fcn \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131labilecek uranyum kaynaklar\u0131, yaln\u0131zca sekiz y\u0131l boyunca 2500 \u201cr\u00f6nesans\u201d reakt\u00f6r\u00fcne yak\u0131t sa\u011flayabilecek.<\/p>\n

Baz\u0131lar\u0131na g\u00f6re, reakt\u00f6r yak\u0131t\u0131 olmak \u00fczere pl\u00fctonyumun yeniden i\u015flenmesi, k\u0131s\u0131tl\u0131 uranyum kaynaklar\u0131 i\u00e7in bir kurtar\u0131c\u0131 olabilecektir. Yeniden i\u015flem s\u00fcreci \u00e7ekinceli, olduk\u00e7a pahal\u0131 ve n\u00fckleer silahlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011falmas\u0131na katk\u0131da bulunur. (30)<\/p>\n

GELECEK SAYI<\/strong><\/p>\n

N\u00fckleer erkenin ger\u00e7ek ekonomik maliyeti<\/strong><\/p>\n

Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) 1980\u2019li y\u0131llarda Manhattan Projesi\u2019nde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan baz\u0131 biliminsanlar\u0131yla yap\u0131lan ki\u015fisel ileti\u015fim. Art\u0131k hi\u00e7biri ya\u015famda olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan isimlerini a\u00e7\u0131klamak da gerekmiyor.<\/p>\n

2) \u00a0Baz\u0131 ki\u015filer k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmayla ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131n incelmesi aras\u0131ndaki fark\u0131 kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yor. Bu ikisi birbirinden tamamen farkl\u0131 meteorolojik s\u00fcre\u00e7lerdir. Ozon (O3<\/sub>) atmosferin \u00fcst katman\u0131nda (stratosfer) milyarlarca y\u0131l boyunca birikmi\u015ftir ve G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019ten gelen ve kansere neden olan mor\u00f6te \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in bir s\u00fczge\u00e7 (filtre) olu\u015fturur. Ozon tabakas\u0131, end\u00fcstride geni\u015f \u00e7apta kullan\u0131lan ve at\u0131l bir gaz oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen kloroflorokarbon (CFC) gaz ailesi nedeniyle Yer atmosferinin baz\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerinde, \u00f6rne\u011fin G\u00fcney U\u00e7lak (kutup) b\u00f6lgesinde\u00a0 incelmi\u015f hatta ortadan kalkm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu gazlar stratosfere y\u00fckselerek ozon molek\u00fclleriyle birle\u015fip o molek\u00fclleri bozarlar. CFC gaz ailesi stratosferdeki varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 75-380 y\u0131l s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilir. Ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131n incelmesi sonucunda insanlarda ve hayvanlarda G\u00fcne\u015f mor\u00f6te \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n yo\u011funlu\u011funun artmas\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak deri kanseri hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 art\u0131\u015f g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Ozon tabakas\u0131ndaki %1\u2019lik azal\u0131\u015f, canl\u0131larda %4-6 oran\u0131nda deri kanser hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 art\u0131\u015f\u0131na neden oluyor. Ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zellikle ince oldu\u011fu Avustralya\u2019da halk salg\u0131n deri kanser hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve benlerde olu\u015fan k\u00f6t\u00fc bir cilt t\u00fcm\u00f6r\u00fcnden (malignant melanoma) k\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor. Bu kayg\u0131 nedeniyle 1987 y\u0131l\u0131nda yap\u0131lan Montreal Protokol\u00fcne g\u00f6re CFC \u00fcretimi azald\u0131 ve bir\u00e7ok \u00fclke 1990 y\u0131l\u0131nda Londra\u2019da yap\u0131lan bir anla\u015fma sonucunda CFC \u00fcretimini yasaklad\u0131 (Helen Caldicott, If You Love This Planet<\/em>, New York: W.W. Norton, 1992). CFC gazlar\u0131 hem ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131 deldi\u011fi hem de k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in tehlikelidir.<\/p>\n

ABD Erke Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 (DOE) verilerine g\u00f6re, ABD\u2019de sal\u0131nan CFC 114 gaz\u0131n\u0131n %93 denlisi uranyum zenginle\u015ftirme s\u00fcrecinden kaynaklan\u0131yor. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, n\u00fckleer santral yak\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcretilme s\u00fcrecidir (Nancy Checklick, U.S. Department of Energy, yazara 8 Haziran 2004 tarihinde g\u00f6nderilen\u00a0 e-mail iletisi). \u201cTemiz ve ye\u015fil\u201d olmaktan uza\u011fa, n\u00fckleer erke \u00fcretiminin bu evresi, ozon tabakas\u0131n\u0131 delen kimyasal elementleri \u00fcreten en b\u00fcy\u00fck end\u00fcstridir (James Bruggers, \u201cUranium Plants Harm Ozone Layer, Kentucky, Ohio Facilities Top List of Polluters\u201d, The Courier-Journal<\/em>, 29 May\u0131s 2001).<\/p>\n

3) \u00a0CFC gazlar\u0131 k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya karbondioksit gaz\u0131ndan 10.000-20.000 kez daha fazla etkin olan gazlard\u0131r. K\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan di\u011fer gazlar, gaz ile \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan elektrik santrallerinde kullan\u0131lan metan veya \u201cdo\u011fal gaz\u201d ve nitrik oksit, araba ve k\u00f6m\u00fcr ile \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan santrallerden \u00e7\u0131kan egzoz gaz\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

4) Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen ve Philip Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future; Would it Solve the CO2<\/sub> emission Problem?\u201d<\/p>\n

http:\/\/beheer.opvit.rug.nl\/deenen\/Nuclear_sustainability_rev3.doc, October 12, 2004.<\/p>\n

5) agy (ad\u0131 ge\u00e7en yap\u0131t).<\/p>\n

6) J. W. Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cNuclear Power – Some Facts\u201d, August 10, 2005, p.10.<\/p>\n

7) NEA – IAEA, Uranium 2003<\/em>: Resources, Production and Demand<\/em> (Paris OECD, 2004).<\/p>\n

8) Joule erke birimidir; bir kalp at\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n erkesi 1 joul\u2019dur. 100 watl\u0131k bir ampul saniyede 100 joule erke t\u00fcketir. Bir litre suyu 1 santigrad derece \u0131s\u0131tmak i\u00e7in 4800 joule veya 4,8 kilojoule (KJ) gereksinim vard\u0131r. Gigajoule bir milyar joule demektir.<\/p>\n

9) Storm van Leeuwen and Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future?\u201d, Chapter 2, p.4-8.<\/p>\n

10) agy, Chapter 4, p.4.<\/p>\n

11) agy.<\/p>\n

12) Erke ve \u00c7evre Ara\u015ft\u0131rma Enstit\u00fcs\u00fcnde (IEER – Institute for Energy and Environmental Research) \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Brice Smith\u2019den 7 Ekim 2004 tarihinde al\u0131nan ve ki\u015fisel ileti\u015fim olan e-posta.<\/p>\n

13) Checklick, 8 Haziran 2004.<\/p>\n

14) \u00a0Storm van Leeuwen ve Philip Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 2, p.9-10<\/p>\n

15) agy, Chapter 3, p.10-12.<\/p>\n

16) agy.<\/p>\n

17) agy.<\/p>\n

18) agy.<\/p>\n

19) agy.<\/p>\n

20) agy, Chapter, p.2-8.<\/p>\n

21) J. W. Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cRadioactive Discharges from Nuclear Power: Sustainability and Nuclear Power\u201d, Chapter 5, November 16, 2005.<\/p>\n

22) Storm van Leeuwen ve Philip Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 4, p.6.<\/p>\n

23) Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cNuclear Power – Some Facts\u201d, p.7.<\/p>\n

24) \u00a0BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2005, www.bp.com\/statisticalreview2005<\/a>; and Storm van Leeuwen and Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 2, p.12.<\/p>\n

25) Storm van Leeuwen and Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 5, p.9.<\/p>\n

26) N\u00fckleer yak\u0131t \u00e7evrimi sa\u011fl\u0131\u011fa zararl\u0131 di\u011fer bile\u015fikleri de b\u00fcy\u00fck niceliklerde kullan\u0131r. Bu zararl\u0131 bile\u015fikler k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc gazlar \u00fcretir. Bir y\u0131ll\u0131k reakt\u00f6r yak\u0131t\u0131 olan 20,3 ton zenginle\u015ftirilmi\u015f uranyum elde etmek i\u00e7in 162 ton do\u011fal uranyumun uranyum hegzafloride d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesi gerekir ki, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te 77,6 ton flor gaz\u0131 gerekiyor. Zenginle\u015ftirilmi\u015f uranyum 235 n\u00fckleer yak\u0131t olu\u015fturmak \u00fczere yeniden uranyum okside d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te 9,72 ton flor gaz\u0131 sal\u0131n\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Geriye kalan 141,7 ton \u201ct\u00fckenmi\u015f\u201d uranyum 238 hegzaflorid gaz (t\u00fcketilmi\u015f uranyum 238) a\u00e7\u0131k havada, y\u00fcz binlerce \u00e7elik bidon i\u00e7inde depolan\u0131r. Uranyum hegzaflorid gaz\u0131 olduk\u00e7a tepkili oldu\u011fundan bu \u00e7elik bidonlar\u0131n s\u0131z\u0131nt\u0131 yapmas\u0131na neden olur. Her y\u0131l t\u00fcm d\u00fcnyada 68.000 ton uranyum flor gaz\u0131 ile s\u00fcrece girdi\u011finden 32.600 ton flor gaz\u0131na gereksinim vard\u0131r. Flor gaz\u0131 \u00e7ekincelidir ve tepkimeye olduk\u00e7a yatk\u0131n oldu\u011fundan di\u011fer kimyasal materyallerle birle\u015fir. Bu nedenle, flor gaz\u0131n\u0131n organik \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcc\u00fclerle tepkimeye girmesi sonucunda \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc sera gazlar\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015faca\u011f\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. Bu gazlar uranyum zenginle\u015ftirme s\u00fcrecinde atmosfere yan \u00fcr\u00fcnler olarak sal\u0131n\u0131r (J. W. Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cNuclear Power – the Energy Balance, Some Details of the Front End of the Nuclear Process hain\u201d, November 18, 2005).<\/p>\n

Uranyum yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f kaplamas\u0131 olan zirconium, klor gaz\u0131 ile durulan\u0131r ki klor gaz\u0131 da k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir gazd\u0131r. N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7 istasyonlar\u0131 i\u00e7in y\u0131ll\u0131k 7.600-15.200 ton zircaloy \u00fcretimi en az\u0131ndan 11.700-23.400 ton klor gaz\u0131na gereksinim vard\u0131r. Klor bile\u015fikleri k\u00fcresel \u0131s\u0131nmaya neden olan gazlar\u0131n \u00fcretiminden sorumludur (Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cNuclear Power – the Energy Balance\u201d, p.2).<\/p>\n

Storm van Leeuwen\u2019in i\u015faret etti\u011fi gibi, \u201cN\u00fckleer end\u00fcstri, n\u00fckleer erke \u00fcretiminin karbondan veya sera etkisi yapan gazlardan ari oldu\u011funu savunmadan \u00f6nce, yak\u0131t \u00e7evriminin her evresinde karbon dioksit ve di\u011fer sera gaz sal\u0131n\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n eksiksiz bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemesini yay\u0131nlamal\u0131d\u0131r\u201d (J.W. Storm van Leeuwen, \u201cUranium and Greenhouse Gases\u201d, August 13, 2005).<\/p>\n

27) \u00a0Arjun Makhijani and Brice Smith, IEER, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, July 26, 2005.<\/p>\n

28) \u00a0agy, Michael Mariotte, \u201cNuclear Power is Wrong Answer\u201d, NIRS, May 27, 2005; and Storm van Leeuwen and Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 5, p.7-8.<\/p>\n

29) Storm van Leeuwen and Smith, \u201cCan Nuclear Power Provide Energy for the Future\u201d, Chapter 2, p.12.<\/p>\n

30) Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen ile 11 Mart 2006 tarihinde yap\u0131lan e-posta yaz\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndan.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

N\u00fckleer g\u00fc\u00e7, suyu kaynatman\u0131n olduk\u00e7a pahal\u0131, karma\u015f\u0131k ve tehlikeli bir yoludur. Uranyum yak\u0131t \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 reakt\u00f6r \u00f6ze\u011finde suyun i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilir, uranyum kritik k\u00fctleye ula\u015f\u0131r ve devasa niceliklerde \u0131s\u0131 \u00fcretilir ve su buharla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. \u00dcretilen buhar, borularla t\u00fcrbine y\u00f6nlendirilir ve d\u00f6nen t\u00fcrbin elektrik \u00fcretir. Yap\u0131lan propagandalarla, n\u00fckleer santrallerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z enerji \u00fcreticisi oldu\u011funa inanmam\u0131z isteniyor. N\u00fckleer enerjinin temiz ve […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":475,"featured_media":27110,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[160,217,38],"tags":[1962,348,1506],"class_list":["post-27108","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-123-sayi","category-cevre-bilimleri","category-dergi-sayilari","tag-enerji-santralleri","tag-nukleer-enerji","tag-nukleer-santral"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t