{"id":35523,"date":"2019-07-24T03:26:07","date_gmt":"2019-07-24T00:26:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=35523"},"modified":"2019-07-28T08:55:45","modified_gmt":"2019-07-28T05:55:45","slug":"antropolojide-mulkiyet-ve-mubadele-kavramlari","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2019\/07\/24\/antropolojide-mulkiyet-ve-mubadele-kavramlari","title":{"rendered":"Antropoloji’de m\u00fclkiyet ve m\u00fcbadele kavramlar\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u0130ktisadi antropoloji, farkl\u0131 toplumlar\u0131n ge\u00e7imlerini sa\u011flama tarzlar\u0131n\u0131 incelemekle yetinemez; hi\u00e7bir birey ya da toplum kendisi i\u00e7in yeterli t\u00fcm kaynaklara sahip olamayaca\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u00fcretilen ya da edinilen \u00fcr\u00fcn, mal ve hizmetlerin toplum i\u00e7erisinde ya da toplumlar aras\u0131nda nas\u0131l m\u00fcbadeleye sokuldu\u011funun da anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekmektedir.<\/p>\n

Ancak bunu anlayabilmek i\u00e7in m\u00fclkiyet kavram\u0131 \u00fczerinde biraz durmak gerekiyor. Kapitalist toplumlarda ya\u015fayan bireyler m\u00fclkiyeti bir nesne ya da s\u00fcre\u00e7 \u00fczerinde bir ki\u015finin elinde yo\u011funla\u015fm\u0131\u015f mutlak haklar dizini, yani \u201c\u00f6zel ve bireysel\u201d bir tasarruf olarak alg\u0131lama e\u011filimindedir. Oysa modern kapitalist toplumlarda dahi \u201c\u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyet\u201din hi\u00e7bir zaman tam ve mutlak bir \u201chak\u201d olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir yana (kamu yarar\u0131na istimlaklar, kamu arazisine kurulan gecekondular \u00fczerinde, isk\u00e2n edenlere tapu verilmesi uygulamalar\u0131, kredi borcunu \u00f6deyemez duruma d\u00fc\u015fen ger\u00e7ek ya da t\u00fczel ki\u015filere haciz uygulamalar\u0131 vb.), \u201cm\u00fclkiyet\u201d kavram\u0131 farkl\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerde farkl\u0131 alg\u0131lanmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin Avrupal\u0131lar Avustralya\u2019y\u0131 ya da Amerika K\u0131tas\u0131\u2019n\u0131 i\u015fgal ettiklerinde \u00f6nlerinde uzanan u\u00e7suz bucaks\u0131z topraklar\u0131 \u201cbo\u015f ve sahipsiz\u201d olarak de\u011ferlendirip, \u00e7itlerle \u00e7evirip \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor olman\u0131n, aileleri bu topraklara sahip k\u0131lmaya yetece\u011fini varsaym\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Oysa Avustralya Aborijinleri ya da Amerika yerlileri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan kendilerini topra\u011fa sahip k\u0131lan ayinleri ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmek, orada ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f atalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6revlerini yerine getirmek, bir teritoryay\u0131(Karasal, topraksal b\u00f6lge) tasarruf haklar\u0131n\u0131n temelini olu\u015fturuyordu. (Ad\u0131 bilinmeyen bir yerli reisinin, topraklar\u0131n\u0131 sat\u0131n almak \u00fczere gelen ABD\u2019li heyetine verdi\u011fi, klasikle\u015fmi\u015f s\u00f6ylev, \u201cNas\u0131l satabilirsin ki havay\u0131?\u201d iki farkl\u0131 m\u00fclkiyet kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zler \u00f6n\u00fcne sermesi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir metindir\u2026)<\/p>\n

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Avrupal\u0131lar Avustralya\u2019y\u0131 ya da Amerika K\u0131tas\u0131\u2019n\u0131 i\u015fgal ettiklerinde \u00f6nlerinde uzanan u\u00e7suz bucaks\u0131z topraklar\u0131 \u201cbo\u015f ve sahipsiz\u201d olarak de\u011ferlendirip, \u00e7itlerle \u00e7evirip \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor olman\u0131n, aileleri bu topraklara sahip k\u0131lmaya yetece\u011fini varsaym\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

M\u00fclkiyet kavram\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel olarak de\u011fi\u015fiklik g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi gibi, insanlar aras\u0131ndaki m\u00fcbadele ili\u015fkileri de k\u00fclt\u00fcrden k\u00fclt\u00fcre farkl\u0131l\u0131k sergiler. Ancak modern (kapitalist) olmayan toplumlarda m\u00fcbadele ili\u015fkileri ya da al\u0131\u015fveri\u015fin \u201ck\u00fclt\u00fcrel bir evrensel\u201d olarak nitelenebilecek \u201ckar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k\u201d temeline yerle\u015fti\u011fi, Frans\u0131z sosyolog Durkheim\u2019\u0131n ye\u011feni, antropolog Marcel Mauss taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Mauss 1924\u2019te yay\u0131mlanan Essai sur le Don (Arma\u011fan \u00dczerine Bir Deneme) ba\u015fl\u0131kl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda, yery\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7e\u015fitli b\u00f6lgelerinden derlenmi\u015f etnografik verilere dayanarak (ki bu kaynaklardan biri, Bronislaw Malinowski\u2019nin Trobriand Adal\u0131lar\u0131n ayinsel ticareti kula \u00fczerine g\u00f6zlemleriydi) k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7ekli toplumlarda arma\u011fan verme, kabul ve kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k verme davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n toplumsal etkile\u015fim ve b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fmenin temelini te\u015fkil etti\u011fine dikkat \u00e7ekmektedir. Mauss\u2019a g\u00f6re k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7ekli toplumlarda arma\u011fan kabul etme her zaman, er ya da ge\u00e7 al\u0131nan arma\u011fana az\u00e7ok denk bir arma\u011fan\u0131 vermeyi gerektirmekteydi. Essai sur le Don\u2019da arma\u011fan-temelli toplumlar\u0131 arma\u011fan\u0131n \u00f6zg\u00fcn i\u015flevlerini devlet, ticaret vb. bir kurumun \u00fcstlendi\u011fi ara bir kategori izler. Bir \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc kategori ise, arma\u011fan de\u011fi\u015ftoku\u015funun marjinal bir role sahip oldu\u011fu modern piyasa-y\u00f6nelimli toplumlard\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Mauss\u2019un arma\u011fan al\u0131\u015fveri\u015finin insan davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n temellerinden birini te\u015fkil etti\u011fi fikri, kendisini izleyen pek \u00e7ok antropologca devral\u0131narak farkl\u0131 alanlara uygulanacakt\u0131r. (\u00d6rne\u011fin, Frans\u0131z yap\u0131salc\u0131 antropolog Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss\u2019un akrabal\u0131k kuram\u0131, ileride de g\u00f6rece\u011fimiz \u00fczere Mauss\u2019un \u201ckar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k\u201d fikri \u00fczerine temellenmektedir.) Ne ki onu iktisadi antropoloji alan\u0131na yerle\u015ftiren, bir antropolog de\u011fil, bir iktisat tarih\u00e7isi olan Karl Polanyi\u2019dir. 1944\u2019te yay\u0131mlanan ve kapitalizmin bi\u00e7imleni\u015fini anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 The Great Transformation (B\u00fcy\u00fck D\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131n\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde Polanyi, toplumlar\u0131n iktisadi b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fmeyi \u00fc\u00e7 m\u00fcbadele bi\u00e7imi \u00fczerinden ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirebileceklerini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmekteydi:<\/p>\n

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Modern (kapitalist) olmayan toplumlarda m\u00fcbadele ili\u015fkileri ya da al\u0131\u015fveri\u015fin \u201ck\u00fclt\u00fcrel bir evrensel\u201d olarak nitelenebilecek \u201ckar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k\u201d temeline yerle\u015fti\u011fi, Frans\u0131z sosyolog Durkheim\u2019\u0131n ye\u011feni, antropolog Marcel Mauss taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1) Kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k:<\/strong> Mal ve hizmetlerin kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 g\u00fcven ya da dolay\u0131ms\u0131z \u00f6deme \u00fczerine temellenen do\u011frudan al\u0131\u015f veri\u015fi; takas. Bu m\u00fcbadele tipi devlet gibi merkezi bir otoritenin bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 toplumlarda ba\u015fat m\u00fcbadele tipini olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

2) Yeniden da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m:<\/strong> Merkezi bir yetkenin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 toplum tiplerinde (\u015feflikler, erken devletler, devlet m\u00fcdahalecili\u011fiyle d\u00fczenlenen ekonomiler) \u00fcr\u00fcn ve hizmetler, bir g\u00f6revliler hiyerar\u015fisinden ge\u00e7erek merkeze iletilirken, k\u0131tl\u0131k, kriz, sava\u015f ya da \u015f\u00f6len gibi vesilelerde topluma iade edilmektedir. Merkeze y\u00f6neldi\u011fi hiyerar\u015finin her bir kademesinde mal ve hizmetlerin bir k\u0131sm\u0131 al\u0131konulmal\u0131d\u0131r. (Osmanl\u0131 iltizam sistemi bu m\u00fcbadele tipine iyi bir \u00f6rnektir.)<\/p>\n

3) Piyasa m\u00fcbadelesi:<\/strong> Sanayi Devrimi\u2019nin \u00fcretim ile toplumun ge\u00e7imlik gereksinimleri aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011f\u0131 kopartt\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u00fcretim ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n ise \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyetini olanakl\u0131 k\u0131lan kapitalist sistemin ba\u015fat m\u00fcbadele tipidir. Piyasa m\u00fcbadelesinde mal ve hizmetler para kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve arz ve talep yasalar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan belirlenen fiyatlarla al\u0131n\u0131p sat\u0131l\u0131rken, \u00fcreticiler ile t\u00fcketiciler aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki y\u00fcz y\u00fcze olmaktan \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, ki\u015filikd\u0131\u015f\u0131 bir piyasa dolay\u0131m\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmektedir. ABD\u2019li antropolog Marshall Sahlins, 1974\u2019te yay\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Stone Age Economics (Ta\u015f Devri Ekonomisi) ba\u015fl\u0131kl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda, Polanyi\u2019den devrald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201ckar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k\u201d ilkesini daha da ayr\u0131nt\u0131land\u0131racakt\u0131r. Sahlins\u2019e g\u00f6re k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-\u00f6l\u00e7ekli toplumlarda kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k ilkesinin \u00fc\u00e7 tipini ay\u0131rt etmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr:<\/p>\n

1) Genelle\u015ftirilmi\u015f kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k:<\/strong> Kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131\u011fa dayal\u0131 m\u00fcbadelenin bu tipi, yak\u0131n bireyler aras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmektedir: E\u015fler, ebeveynlerle \u00e7ocuklar, akraba gruplar\u0131, ayn\u0131 k\u00f6yde ya\u015fayanlar, kom\u015fular vb. Bu m\u00fcbadele tipinde arma\u011fan (mal ya da hizmet), somut ve dolay\u0131ms\u0131z bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k beklemeksizin, ancak uzun erimde bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k al\u0131naca\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin mu\u011flak bir g\u00fcvene dayal\u0131 olarak verilmektedir. Ebeveynlerin \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131, ileride kendilerine bakaca\u011f\u0131 umuduyla yeti\u015ftirmesi, bu m\u00fcbadele tipine \u00f6rnek olarak verilebilir.<\/p>\n

2) Dengeli kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k: <\/strong>Kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 m\u00fcbadelenin bu tipinde ise, m\u00fcbadeleye giren taraflar aras\u0131ndaki sosyal mesafe biraz daha a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: kom\u015fu k\u00f6yler, h\u0131s\u0131mlar, arkada\u015flar, vb. Bu m\u00fcbadelede arma\u011fan\u0131 veren, makul bir s\u00fcre i\u00e7erisinde, verdi\u011fine yakla\u015f\u0131k denk bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k alma beklentisindedir. Bu beklentinin kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k bulmamas\u0131, ili\u015fkiyi zedeleyecektir.<\/p>\n

3) Negatif kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131k:<\/strong> G\u00fcvensizli\u011fe dayal\u0131 bu m\u00fcbadele tipinde m\u00fcbadeleye giren taraflar aras\u0131nda toplumsal ili\u015fkiler zay\u0131f, aralar\u0131ndaki toplumsal mesafe a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. H\u0131rs\u0131zl\u0131k, hile, doland\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k beklentisi y\u00fcksektir. Bu nedenle m\u00fcbadeleye giren taraflar, verdiklerine denk oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fckleri kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, zaman ge\u00e7irmeksizin almak ister. Afrika Ekvator b\u00f6lgesinde ya\u015fayan avc\u0131-toplay\u0131c\u0131 Mbutilerle, kom\u015fular\u0131, hortik\u00fclt\u00fcralist Bantular aras\u0131nda, orman derinliklerinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen \u201csessiz trampa\u201d bu m\u00fcbadele tipine \u00f6rnek g\u00f6sterilmektedir. \u201cSessiz trampa\u201dda Bantu, Mbuti\u2019nin ormana b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 (\u00f6rne\u011fin) bal\u0131 al\u0131p kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yeti\u015ftirdi\u011fi meyvelerden b\u0131rak\u0131r. Mbuti, meyvelerin bal\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmezse, onlar\u0131 oldu\u011fu yerde b\u0131rakarak geri d\u00f6ner. Aralar\u0131ndaki m\u00fcbadele ili\u015fkisinin s\u00fcrebilmesi ve ileride g\u00fcvene d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015febilmesi i\u00e7in Bantu meyve miktar\u0131n\u0131, Mbuti kabul edene dek art\u0131rmak zorundad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00fczere, kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131\u011fa dayal\u0131 m\u00fcbadelelerde m\u00fcbadeleye giren taraflar aras\u0131ndaki toplumsal mesafe ne denli k\u0131saysa, arma\u011fan\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 verme s\u00fcresi o denli uzamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Yararlan\u0131lan Kaynaklar ve Okuma \u00d6nerileri<\/strong><\/p>\n

– Anonim, 2000; Nas\u0131l Satabilirsin ki Havay\u0131?, Ankara: \u00dctopya Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n

– Godbout, J. T., 2003; Arma\u011fan D\u00fcnyas\u0131, \u0130stanbul: \u0130leti\u015fim Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n

– Mauss, Marcel, 2006; \u201cBa\u011f\u0131\u015f (Hediye) \u00dczerine Bir Deneme Arkaik Toplumlarda M\u00fcbadele Bi\u00e7imi ve Nedenleri\u201d, Sosyoloji ve Antropoloji i\u00e7inde, Ankara: Do\u011fu Bat\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n

Kaynak: <\/strong>Sibel \u00d6zbudun, G\u00fclfem Uysal, 50 Soruda Antropoloji, Bilim ve Gelecek Kitapl\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u015eubat 2012, s.111-114<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

\u0130ktisadi antropoloji, farkl\u0131 toplumlar\u0131n ge\u00e7imlerini sa\u011flama tarzlar\u0131n\u0131 incelemekle yetinemez; hi\u00e7bir birey ya da toplum kendisi i\u00e7in yeterli t\u00fcm kaynaklara sahip olamayaca\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u00fcretilen ya da edinilen \u00fcr\u00fcn, mal ve hizmetlerin toplum i\u00e7erisinde ya da toplumlar aras\u0131nda nas\u0131l m\u00fcbadeleye sokuldu\u011funun da anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekmektedir. Ancak bunu anlayabilmek i\u00e7in m\u00fclkiyet kavram\u0131 \u00fczerinde biraz durmak gerekiyor. Kapitalist toplumlarda ya\u015fayan […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":429,"featured_media":35524,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[3624],"tags":[2725,243,5070,5069,5068,5071,5067,1820],"class_list":["post-35523","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-sorularla-bilim","tag-aborjinler","tag-antropoloji","tag-arazi","tag-dagitim","tag-iktisadi-antropoloji","tag-mal","tag-mubadele","tag-mulkiyet"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t