{"id":37114,"date":"2019-10-01T00:00:23","date_gmt":"2019-09-30T21:00:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/?p=37114"},"modified":"2020-04-18T10:56:21","modified_gmt":"2020-04-18T07:56:21","slug":"newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2019\/10\/01\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu","title":{"rendered":"Newton\u2019\u0131n do\u011fa felsefesi <br \/> Deney, matematik ve b\u00fcy\u00fc"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><em>Isaac Newton (1642-1727) hem fizik hem de astronomi alan\u0131nda kendinden \u00f6nce birbirinden kopuk olarak elde edilmi\u015f bilimsel bulu\u015flar\u0131 ve onlar\u0131n sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kapsayan bir sistem kurmu\u015ftur. Bilime katk\u0131lar\u0131 aras\u0131nda en bilineni evrensel \u00e7ekim kanunu ile ilgili oland\u0131r.\u00a0 Bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki b\u00fcy\u00fck bulu\u015flar\u0131 (Leibniz ile e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olarak) diferansiyel ve integral hesab\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesi, s\u0131cak bir nesneden kaybolan \u0131s\u0131 oran\u0131n\u0131n, o nesnenin \u00e7evresindeki s\u0131cakl\u0131kla olan fark\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011funun ke\u015ffedilmesi ve beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n g\u00f6kku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n\u0131n renklerinden olu\u015ftu\u011funun bulunmas\u0131d\u0131r. Klasik fizik, doru\u011funa Newton ile ula\u015f\u0131r. <\/em><\/p>\n<p>Newton, yayg\u0131n bi\u00e7imde Charles Darwin (1809-1882), Albert Einstein (1879-1955) ya da Niels Bohr (1885-1962) gibi t\u00fcm zamanlar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bilim dehalar\u0131ndan biri olarak kabul edilir. Newton 17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in bu kabul daha da \u00f6nemlidir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Einstein ile Bohr, bilimsel geli\u015fmeler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olman\u0131n avantaj\u0131na sahiplerdi. Ger\u00e7ekten de yakla\u015f\u0131k iki y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca, \u201cklasik fizi\u011fin krizi\u201d diye an\u0131lan d\u00f6neme kadar, fizi\u011fin t\u00fcm\u00fc esas olarak Newton\u2019un g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerinden ibaret say\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Newton yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde <em>Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica <\/em>(Do\u011fa Felsefesinin Matematiksel \u0130lkeleri, 1687; geni\u015fletilmi\u015f 2. Bask\u0131s\u0131 1713; 3. Bask\u0131s\u0131 1726) ve <em>Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light<\/em> (Optik, ya da, I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n Yans\u0131malar\u0131, K\u0131r\u0131n\u0131mlar\u0131, B\u00fck\u00fcl\u00fcmleri ve Renkleri \u00dczerine Bir \u0130nceleme, 1704; Latince bask\u0131s\u0131 1706; 3. Bask\u0131s\u0131 1717) adl\u0131 eserlerinde toplam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki Newton imgesi, yakla\u015f\u0131k olarak, Nobel \u00f6d\u00fcll\u00fc bir astrofizik\u00e7i olan Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar\u2019\u0131n (1910-1995) sundu\u011fu gibidir: \u201cSergiledi\u011fi bilim g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, yaz\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki duruluk, buldu\u011fu yeni \u015feylerin say\u0131s\u0131 \u00f6yle bir fiziksel ve matematiksel kavray\u0131\u015f sergiler ki, bilimde herhangi bir zamanda bir ko\u015futu yoktur.\u201d Benzer bir \u015fekilde Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica<\/em>\u2019s\u0131 da \u201cmodern bilimin temelini atan yap\u0131t\u201d olarak bilinir (aktaran Yard\u0131ml\u0131, 1998: 6). Newton\u2019a y\u00f6nelik hemen hemen dinsel bir tap\u0131nmaya varan tutumun arkas\u0131nda onun neredeyse tek ba\u015f\u0131na kalk\u00fcl\u00fcs\u00fc, evrensel yer\u00e7ekimi yasas\u0131n\u0131 ve optik kuram\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffeden bir deha oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131m\u0131 yatar.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton\u2019\u0131n <\/strong><strong>annus mirabilis\u2019\u0131<br \/>\n<\/strong>Oysa bir varsay\u0131m olarak \u2018deha\u2019 iyi bir a\u00e7\u0131klama de\u011fildir. \u00c7o\u011fu zaman, s\u00f6z konusu olan biliminsan\u0131n\u0131n, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel anlamda, do\u011fru zamanda do\u011fru yerde olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Newton da do\u011fru zamanda ve do\u011fru yerdeydi. Peki, Newton kendi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 nas\u0131l de\u011ferlendirmi\u015ftir? Sonraki y\u0131llarda Newton, en verimli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 23 ya\u015f\u0131nda Cambridge Trinity College\u2019da gen\u00e7 bir akademisyenken veba salg\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemi\u015ftir. Cambridge \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nin veba salg\u0131n\u0131 nedeniyle kapanmas\u0131 \u00fczerine Newton\u2019\u0131n Lincoln yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda Grantham\u2019daki evinde ge\u00e7irdi\u011fi 1665\/1666 y\u0131llar\u0131 Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>annus mirabilis\u2019<\/em>i (muhte\u015fem y\u0131l\u0131) olarak bilinir. Newton gen\u00e7lik d\u00f6neminin \u2018muhte\u015fem y\u0131l\u0131\u2019nda yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ya\u015fl\u0131l\u0131k d\u00f6neminde \u015f\u00f6yle an\u0131msar:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c1665 y\u0131l\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131nda dizilerin yakla\u015f\u0131m de\u011ferlerinin hesaplanmas\u0131n\u0131n y\u00f6ntemini ve herhangi bir ikiterimlideki herhangi bir de\u011ferin b\u00f6yle bir diziye indirgenme kural\u0131n\u0131 buldum. Ayn\u0131 y\u0131l\u0131n May\u0131s ay\u0131nda Gregory ve Slusius\u2019un tanjant y\u00f6ntemini buldum; Kas\u0131m\u2019da fl\u00fcksiyonlar\u0131n do\u011frudan y\u00f6ntemini buldum [yani, diferensiyel hesab\u0131!]. Ertesi y\u0131l\u0131n ocak ay\u0131nda renk kuram\u0131n\u0131 [yani, 1704\u2019te <em>Opticks<\/em>\u2019te yay\u0131nlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7eri\u011fin b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc] buldum; ertesi May\u0131s\u2019ta ters fl\u00fcksiyon y\u00f6ntemine girdim [yani, integral hesab\u0131 buldu!]. Ayn\u0131 y\u0131l, k\u00fctle \u00e7ekiminin Ay\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6r\u00fcngesine uzand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye ba\u015flad\u0131m; bir k\u00fcrenin i\u00e7inde daireler halinde d\u00f6nen bir yuvarla\u011f\u0131n, k\u00fcrenin y\u00fczeyine uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kuvvetin hesaplanmas\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffettikten sonra: Kepler\u2019in, gezegenlerin devir s\u00fcrelerinin y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerinin merkezine olan uzakl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n bir bu\u00e7uk kat\u0131 oldu\u011fu kural\u0131ndan yola \u00e7\u0131karak [Kepler\u2019in gezegenlerin devinimlerine dair \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc yasas\u0131na g\u00f6nderme], gezegenleri y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerinde tutan kuvvetlerin, \u00e7evrelerinde d\u00f6nd\u00fckleri merkezlere olan uzakl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n kareleriyle ters orant\u0131l\u0131 olmalar\u0131 gerekti\u011fi sonucuna vard\u0131m: B\u00f6ylelikle, Ay\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinde kalmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gereken kuvveti, Yerk\u00fcre\u2019nin y\u00fczeyindeki k\u00fctle \u00e7ekimi kuvvetiyle k\u0131yaslad\u0131\u011f\u0131mda, sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n olduk\u00e7a yak\u0131n oldu\u011funu buldum. B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar 1665 ve 1666 y\u0131llar\u0131nda, veba salg\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6neminde oldu; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc o d\u00f6nemde, en verimli ke\u015fif y\u0131llar\u0131ndayd\u0131m ve matematik ile felsefeye her zamankinden \u00e7ok kafa yoruyordum.\u201d (aktaran Henry, 2016: 218; K\u00f6\u015feli ayra\u00e7 i\u00e7indeki a\u00e7\u0131klamalar sonradan eklenmi\u015ftir)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37116\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37116\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37116\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/2-13-300x158.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"158\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37116\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">1690 tarihli bir \u00e7izimde Cambridge\u2019in Trinity College\u2019\u0131. Newton\u2019\u0131n odalar\u0131, sa\u011f alt k\u00f6\u015fede, B\u00fcy\u00fck Kap\u0131\u2019yla Trinity Kilisesi\u2019nin aras\u0131ndayd\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Bilim tarih\u00e7isi John Henry, Newton\u2019\u0131n anlatt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde do\u011fru oldu\u011funu ve <em>annus mirabilis<\/em>\u2019ini ger\u00e7ekten ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu belirtir; ancak k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimini bu d\u00f6nemde bulmu\u015f oldu\u011fu \u015fu ifadesine kat\u0131lmaz: \u201cGezegenleri y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerinde tutan kuvvetlerin, \u00e7evrelerinde d\u00f6nd\u00fckleri merkezlere olan uzakl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n kareleriyle ters orant\u0131l\u0131 olmalar\u0131 gerekti\u011fi sonucuna vard\u0131m.\u201d Newton her notu, her k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131 saklayan biri oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in onun hayat\u0131n\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131ranlar neyi ne zaman yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirleyebilmi\u015flerdir. Henry\u2019ye g\u00f6re Newton, ku\u015fkusuz, bir elman\u0131n yere d\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olan kuvvetle Ay\u2019\u0131n D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7evresinde d\u00f6nmesini sa\u011flayan kuvvetin ayn\u0131 kuvvet oldu\u011funu bu d\u00f6nemde anlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c<em>Ama bu, Newton\u2019a ait orijinal bir fikir de\u011fildi<\/em>. Bir cismin k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimi nedeniyle d\u00fc\u015fmesi ile gezegenin y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinin ayn\u0131 ko\u015fullarla yap\u0131lan a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131, herhangi bir Descartes\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n zaten al\u0131\u015fk\u0131n oldu\u011fu bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceydi. Descartes\u2019\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 (i\u015flerine geldi\u011fi i\u00e7in) unutup, Newton\u2019\u0131n \u2018evrensel k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimi\u2019ni ke\u015ffini bir <em>evreka<\/em> an\u0131 olarak ileri s\u00fcrenler, William Stukeley (1687-1765) ve Henry Pemberton (1694-1771) gibi ilk ku\u015fak dini biyografi yazarlar\u0131yd\u0131.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 219)<\/p>\n<p>Newton elmalar\u0131n ve Ay\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc de d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 1666 y\u0131l\u0131nda, Descartes\u00e7\u0131 mekanik \u00f6z\u00fc (ether) yer\u00e7ekiminin kayna\u011f\u0131 olarak g\u00f6ren doktrini benimsemi\u015fti. Ether konusunda Descartes\u2019la hemfikirdi. Descartes\u2019a g\u00f6re ether, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u00e7evresinde bir girdap gibi d\u00f6nmekteydi. Bu ether girdab\u0131, bir yandan Ay\u2019\u0131 D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7evresindeki y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinde tutarken di\u011fer yandan elma gibi a\u011f\u0131r nesnelerin serbest b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yerin y\u00fczeyine d\u00fc\u015fmesine neden oluyordu. Descartes\u2019\u0131n evren sisteminde \u00f6teki gezegenlerin de girdaplar\u0131 vard\u0131 ve G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in \u00e7evresinde, yerk\u00fcre d\u00e2hil gezegenleri d\u00fczenli y\u00f6r\u00fcngeleri \u00fczerinde ta\u015f\u0131yan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir anaforun oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131l\u0131yordu:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewton 1684 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce sistemini benimsedi. Ger\u00e7ekten de, 1666 y\u0131l\u0131nda yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 metinler, onun yer\u00e7ekimini yaln\u0131zca d\u00fcnya ve d\u00fcnya-ay sistemi i\u00e7inde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6stermektedir; g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fe g\u00f6re, 1675 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar, bu sistemi g\u00fcne\u015fi ve \u00f6teki gezegenleri de i\u00e7ine alabilecek derecede genelle\u015ftirmemi\u015fti. Bu nedenle, Newton\u2019\u0131n 1666 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki yer\u00e7ekimine bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, 1687 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u2018<em>Principia<\/em>\u2019da a\u00e7\u0131klanan yasan\u0131n evrensel boyutuna sahip de\u011fildi.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 30)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n, \u201cmuhte\u015fem y\u0131l\u0131nda\u201d yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fey Descartes\u2019\u0131n hakl\u0131 olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmek i\u00e7in kendi matematik becerilerini s\u0131namak olmu\u015ftur. Newton\u2019\u0131n \u201cAy\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinde kalmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gereken kuvveti, Yerk\u00fcre\u2019nin y\u00fczeyindeki k\u00fctle \u00e7ekimi kuvvetiyle k\u0131yaslad\u0131\u011f\u0131mda, sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n olduk\u00e7a yak\u0131n oldu\u011funu buldum\u201d derken anlatmak istedi\u011fi budur. Bu d\u00f6neminde, gezegenlerin biri merkezden d\u0131\u015far\u0131 do\u011fru (merkezka\u00e7), di\u011feri de d\u0131\u015far\u0131dan merkeze do\u011fru (merkezcil) olan iki kuvvet aras\u0131ndaki denge sonucunda sabit y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerinde doland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcren Descartes\u00e7\u0131 varsay\u0131m\u0131 kabul etmi\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAy\u2019\u0131n Yerk\u00fcre \u00e7evresindeki d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fleri (t\u0131pk\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131z \u00fczerinde d\u00f6nd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcz sapandaki ta\u015f\u0131n d\u00f6nd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc dairenin merkezinden d\u0131\u015far\u0131 gitme e\u011filimi oldu\u011fu gibi) merkezka\u00e7 kuvvetine yol a\u00e7\u0131yordu, ama kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, daima a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 do\u011fru devinerek Ay\u2019\u0131 Yerk\u00fcre\u2019ye do\u011fru iten (Descartes\u2019\u0131n vorteks [girdap] fizi\u011fine g\u00f6re olu\u015fan) par\u00e7ac\u0131k ak\u0131mlar\u0131 vard\u0131. Ancak bir elma (ya da yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki herhangi bir nesne), a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 do\u011fru devinen par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n kuvvetiyle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015facak kadar merkezka\u00e7 kuvvetinden etkilenmiyor, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla merkezcil kuvvetin etkisiyle yere d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu. Descartes, bu senaryonun do\u011fru olmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fine kan\u0131ta dayanmadan karar vermi\u015f, hesaplamas\u0131n\u0131 yapmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 219-220)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mekanik felsefe ve ok\u00fcltizm<br \/>\n<\/strong>17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda mekanik do\u011fa felsefelerinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fc gelene\u011fine oldu\u011fu kadar Aristoteles\u00e7i d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce gelene\u011fine de bir kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f anlam\u0131na geliyordu. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc mekanik felsefeler Aristoteles\u00e7i yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 ifade eden do\u011fan\u0131n ya\u015fayan bir organizma gibi oldu\u011funu de\u011fil, bir makine gibi \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcr\u00fcyordu. Felsefi k\u00f6keni Epicurus ve Lucretius gibi antik\u00e7a\u011f filozoflar\u0131na dayanan mekanik felsefe bir yandan H\u0131ristiyan Avrupas\u0131\u2019ndaki mekanik ara\u00e7lar\u0131n yayg\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile g\u00fc\u00e7lenmi\u015f, di\u011fer yandan teolojiyle uyumlu hale getirilmi\u015fti:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cT\u0131pk\u0131 insan zanaatk\u00e2rlar\u0131n, bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da yayg\u0131n olan mekanik saatleri, matbaa makinelerini, r\u00fczg\u00e2r ve su de\u011firmenlerini d\u00fczenleyip yapt\u0131klar\u0131 gibi, Tanr\u0131 da d\u00fcnya-makinesini yapm\u0131\u015f ve ona insanlar\u0131n anlay\u0131p \u00f6\u011frenebilece\u011fi yasalarla hareket g\u00fcc\u00fc kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 14-15)<\/p>\n<p>1660\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda ortaya konulmu\u015f bir\u00e7ok mekanik felsefe i\u00e7inde, Newton\u2019\u0131 etkilemi\u015f olan iki Frans\u0131z filozofu vard\u0131: Rene Descartes (1596-1650) ve Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Descartes Aristoteles\u2019ten bu yana ilk b\u00fct\u00fcnsel d\u00fcnya sistemini ortaya koymu\u015f, Gassendi ise yeni bilime uygun atomcu bir ontoloji geli\u015ftirmi\u015fti. Bunlar\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda Newton, Walter Charleton (1619-1707) Robert Boyle (1627-1691), Thomas Hobbes (1614-1679), Kenelm Digby (1603-1665) ve Henry More (1614-87) gibi \u0130ngiliz filozoflar\u0131ndan da etkilenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cBo\u015flukta (uzayda) b\u00f6l\u00fcnemeyen atomlar\u0131n dola\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6ren Gassendi\u2019nin sistemi Descartes\u2019\u0131nkinden olduk\u00e7a farkl\u0131yd\u0131 ve Gassendi\u2019nin sistemleri Charleton taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lan \u00e7evirilerle, \u0130ngiltere\u2019de geni\u015f kitlelerce tan\u0131nd\u0131. R. Boyle hem Descartes\u2019\u0131n hem de Gassendi\u2019nin sistemlerini \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f, fakat ikisi aras\u0131nda bir se\u00e7im yapmaktan ka\u00e7\u0131narak, her ikisinin belli noktalar\u0131n\u0131 alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 15)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37117\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37117\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37117\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12-300x226.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12.jpg 300w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12-80x60.jpg 80w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12-100x75.jpg 100w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12-180x135.jpg 180w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/3-12-238x178.jpg 238w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37117\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton 1665\u2019te bir hiperbol\u00fcn alt\u0131ndaki alan\u0131 hesaplamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken, i\u015flemi 55. basama\u011fa kadar y\u00fcr\u00fctm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Mekanik felsefe d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, Kraliyet Derne\u011fi\u2019nin (The Royal Society) geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi tipik deneysel felsefe yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n Newton \u00fczerindeki bi\u00e7imlendirici etkisini fark etmek \u00f6nemlidir. Asl\u0131nda Newton\u2019\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, mekanik\u00e7i felsefe ile b\u00fcy\u00fc (ya da deney) gelene\u011finin m\u00fckemmel bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cKraliyet Derne\u011fi\u2019nin yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 do\u011fal b\u00fcy\u00fc gelene\u011fine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. B\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fc, \u00e7o\u011fu zaman, bir \u015feyin nas\u0131l i\u015fledi\u011fini bilmedi\u011fini itiraf etmek zorunda kal\u0131r (onun i\u00e7in de b\u00fcy\u00fcl\u00fc ya da gizli olarak tan\u0131mlar), ama o \u015fekilde i\u015fledi\u011fini deneyle g\u00f6sterebilirdi. Kraliyet Derne\u011fi\u2019nin Francis Bacon\u2019dan esinlendi\u011fini, Francis Bacon\u2019\u0131n da do\u011fal b\u00fcy\u00fc gelene\u011finden esinlendi\u011fini dikkate ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, do\u011fal b\u00fcy\u00fc y\u00f6ntemlerine bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f \u00e7ok \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fildi.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 221)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n felsefi konumu k\u0131saca <em>Principia<\/em> (<em>\u0130lkeler<\/em>) ad\u0131yla bilinen yap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n ad\u0131na da (<em>Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica<\/em>) yans\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu yap\u0131t\u0131n ad\u0131, her \u015feyden \u00f6nce Descartes\u2019\u0131n <em>Felsefenin \u0130lkeleri<\/em>\u2019ne bir g\u00f6ndermedir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewton\u2019un ba\u015fyap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Kartezyen fizi\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 tutumu ifade etmektedir: Felsefenin \u0130lkeleri yap\u0131s\u0131 itibariyle matematikseldir. Newton, Descartes\u2019\u0131n tersine, do\u011fa felsefesinin ilkelerini ifade ederken matematiksel bir dil kullanm\u0131\u015f, ayn\u0131 zamanda deneycilik k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc \u00fcstlenmi\u015f ve ampirik temelleri olmayan varsay\u0131mlara ili\u015fkin Bacon\u2019cu ku\u015fkuyu bilimsel y\u00f6ntemine dahil etmi\u015ftir.\u201d (Rossi, 2009: 239)<\/p>\n<p>\u00d6te yandan 17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda \u2018Do\u011fa Felsefesi\u2019, genel anlamda, astronomi, optik, statik, mekanik gibi do\u011fal olaylarla ilgili incelemeleri ve matemati\u011fi kapsamaktad\u0131r. Kimya b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde t\u0131p ile ilgi i\u00e7inde (iatrokimya) d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019s\u0131, hem astronomiyi hem de fizi\u011fi kapsayan bir eserdir. Yani Newton\u2019\u0131n bu eseri kendisinden \u00f6nce Copernicus, Kepler ve Galileo gibi bilim adamlar\u0131n\u0131n fizik ve astronomi alan\u0131nda yapm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n devam\u0131 niteli\u011findedir. Newton\u2019\u0131n<em> Principia<\/em>\u2019s\u0131, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda astronomide oldu\u011fu kadar fizik alan\u0131nda da en \u00f6nemli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Descartes\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton, <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019da y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca Aristoteles fizi\u011fi i\u00e7inde ele al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f olan ve Galileo ile \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcme u\u011fram\u0131\u015f olan hareket sorununu yeniden ele al\u0131r. Galileo, devinim sorununu eylemsizlik ilkesi temelinde ele alarak yeniden tan\u0131mlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. G\u00fcne\u015f-merkezli astronomi sistemine uygun bir fizik kurmu\u015f olan Galileo\u2019nun \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 sayesinde Copernicus sisteminin yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 baz\u0131 sorular\u0131 (\u00f6rne\u011fin, e\u011fer D\u00fcnya d\u00f6n\u00fcyorsa nas\u0131l oluyor da yukar\u0131 do\u011fru f\u0131rlat\u0131lan bir cisim tekrar f\u0131rlat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 noktaya d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyor?) yan\u0131tlayarak o d\u00f6nemde Copernicus\u2019a y\u00f6neltilen ele\u015ftirilerin bertaraf edilmesi sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak, sorunun g\u00f6k mekani\u011fini ilgilendiren y\u00f6n\u00fc, (yani gezegenlerin ni\u00e7in dairesel hareket yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi sorunlar) hen\u00fcz tam olarak a\u00e7\u0131klanamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>Newton zaman\u0131nda gezegenlerin ni\u00e7in dairesel hareket yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin en geli\u015fmi\u015f bilimsel a\u00e7\u0131klama Descartes\u2019a aitti. Ona g\u00f6re gezegenler, t\u0131pk\u0131 ak\u0131nt\u0131ya kap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f gemilerin s\u00fcr\u00fcklenmeleri gibi, onlar\u0131 G\u00fcne\u015f etraf\u0131nda d\u00f6nmeye zorlayan ve ether diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan u\u00e7suz bucaks\u0131z ak\u0131\u015fkan bir madde girdab\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7indeydiler. Bu a\u00e7\u0131klama \u00e7ok yal\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcnmesine kar\u015f\u0131n baz\u0131 sorunlara yol a\u00e7\u0131yordu:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c(1) Her \u015feyden \u00f6nce baz\u0131 gezegenlerin etraflar\u0131nda d\u00f6nen uydular\u0131n\u0131n hareketini a\u00e7\u0131klayabilmek i\u00e7in ek girdaplar\u0131n i\u015fin i\u00e7ine sokulmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektirir; (2) ard\u0131ndan, Kepler yasalar\u0131n\u0131 (\u00f6zellikle \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc yasay\u0131) a\u00e7\u0131klamakta kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lan zorluk nedeniyle, ether denen ak\u0131\u015fkan\u0131n yo\u011funlu\u011funun uzakl\u0131\u011fa g\u00f6re de\u011fi\u015fmesi gerekti\u011fini ortaya koyar; (3) son olarak da, kuyruklu y\u0131ld\u0131z hareketlerini a\u00e7\u0131klaman\u0131n olanaks\u0131z hale gelmesiyle, g\u00fcne\u015fin gezegenleri etkileyen girdab\u0131na benzer ba\u015fka bir girdap daha yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131; bu girdab\u0131n di\u011ferinden tamamen ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak sadece kuyruklu y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131 etkiledi\u011fi; hatta zaman zaman kar\u015f\u0131 ak\u0131nt\u0131ya neden oldu\u011fu gibi bir kabule zorlar.\u201d (Vigoureux, 2008: 354)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37118\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37118\" style=\"width: 249px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37118\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/4-6-249x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"249\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/4-6-249x300.jpg 249w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/4-6.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 249px) 100vw, 249px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37118\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cambridge\u2019de Lucas k\u00fcrs\u00fcs\u00fc matematik profes\u00f6r\u00fc olan Isaac Barrow, Newton\u2019\u0131n parlak zek\u00e2s\u0131n\u0131 ilk fark eden ki\u015filerden biriydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Eylemsizlik ilkesini t\u0131pk\u0131 Descartes gibi tan\u0131mlayan Newton, gezegen hareketlerini a\u00e7\u0131klama noktas\u0131nda farkl\u0131 bir yol izleyerek, gezegenlerin eylemsizlik ilkesi gere\u011fi neden do\u011frusal de\u011fil de dairesel hareket yapt\u0131klar\u0131 sorusunu tekrar ele alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Gezegenler neden G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in \u00e7evresinde dolan\u0131rlar da uzakla\u015f\u0131p gitmezler? Demek ki bir \u015fey onu bu hareketi yapmaya zorluyordur. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re bu \u201c\u015fey\u201d tan\u0131m\u0131 gere\u011fi \u201ckuvvet\u201d denilen \u015feydir. O halde bu durumu ortaya \u00e7\u0131karan, yani gezegenlerin do\u011frusal hareketlerini de\u011fi\u015ftiren bir kuvvet s\u00f6z konusu olmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n bu ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctme bi\u00e7imi onu \u00e7ok daha genel bir anlay\u0131\u015fa ula\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Eylemsizlik ilkesinden kaynaklanan d\u00fczg\u00fcn do\u011frusal hareketten her t\u00fcrl\u00fc sapma belirli bir kuvvetin i\u015f ba\u015f\u0131nda oldu\u011funun g\u00f6stergesidir. Bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme tarz\u0131 do\u011fa yasalar\u0131n\u0131 kavrama y\u00f6n\u00fcnden \u00e7ok yararl\u0131d\u0131r. Ne zaman \u201csabit bir h\u0131zla sonsuza kadar do\u011frusal bir hareket i\u00e7inde olmayan\u201d bir cisim g\u00f6rsek, bu cismin belirli bir kuvvetin etkisi alt\u0131nda oldu\u011fundan emin olabiliriz.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewton, Descartes\u2019\u0131n <em>Principia Philosophiae<\/em>\u2019sinde yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, <em>Principia Mathematica<\/em>\u2019s\u0131n\u0131 devinimin \u00fc\u00e7 yasas\u0131na dayand\u0131r\u0131rken, yasalar\u0131na kuvvet kavram\u0131n\u0131 da alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Descartes ise b\u00fcy\u00fcn\u00fcn kuvvet d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini yasalar\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda tutmaya \u00f6zen g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bug\u00fcn Descartes\u2019\u0131n yasalar\u0131n\u0131n tamamen yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmekte, Newton\u2019\u0131nkiler ise h\u00e2l\u00e2 fizik biliminin (g\u00f6recelilik ve kuantum kuramlar\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klanabilen olgular hari\u00e7) b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn temelini olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 221)<\/p>\n<p>Peki, eylemsizlik hareketinden sapmaya yol a\u00e7an kuvvet ne t\u00fcr bir kuvvettir? <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019da Newton bu sorunun yan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131, evrensel \u00e7ekim ilkesini ifade eden gravitasyon kavram\u0131nda bulur. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, Yer\u2019in \u00e7evresinde dolanan Ay\u2019\u0131 y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinde tutan kuvvet ile yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde bir elman\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olan kuvvet ayn\u0131 kuvvettir. Yer\u2019in elmay\u0131 kendisine \u00e7ekti\u011fi gibi Ay\u2019\u0131 da \u00e7ekti\u011fini ifade edebilmek i\u00e7in Newton \u00e7ekimi ifade eden \u2018atraksiyon\u2019 terimini de\u011fil, a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kazanarak d\u00fc\u015fmeyi i\u00e7eren \u2018gravitasyon\u2019 terimini kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunun nedeni, o d\u00f6nemde h\u00e2l\u00e2 yayg\u0131n olan, sadece ay-alt\u0131nda bulunan cisimlerin a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kazanabilece\u011fi ve y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n ise bir a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n olamayaca\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne kar\u015f\u0131 Newton\u2019\u0131n y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n s\u0131radan elmalardan farkl\u0131 olmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde vurgulamak istemesidir (Vigoureux, 2008: 296). Newton\u2019\u0131n bu yasas\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn evrende ge\u00e7erli oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in evrensel bir nitelik ta\u015f\u0131r. Bu olay\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Newton, \u015f\u00f6yle bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce deneyi tasarlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: Bir da\u011f\u0131n tepesinden at\u0131lan mermi yer\u00e7ekimi nedeniyle A noktas\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fecektir. Daha h\u0131zl\u0131 f\u0131rlat\u0131l\u0131rsa, daha uza\u011fa, \u00f6rne\u011fin A\u2019 noktas\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fer. E\u011fer ilk at\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 yere ula\u015facak bir h\u0131zla f\u0131rlat\u0131l\u0131rsa, yere d\u00fc\u015fmeyecek, kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 merkezka\u00e7 kuvvetle, \u00e7ekim kuvveti dengelendi\u011fi i\u00e7in, t\u0131pk\u0131 do\u011fal bir uydu gibi Yer\u2019in \u00e7evresinde dolan\u0131p duracakt\u0131r. Paul Valery bu bulu\u015f i\u00e7in \u201cHerkes Ay\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fmedi\u011fini g\u00f6r\u00fcrken, Ay\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6rebilmek i\u00e7in Newton olmak gerekir\u201d demi\u015ftir (Vigoureux, 2008: 292). Ancak g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi bu fikir \u201cNewton\u2019a ait orijinal bir fikir\u201d de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n<p>Bu \u015fekilde Yer\u2019in etraf\u0131nda d\u00f6nen cisimle Ay\u2019\u0131n hareketi aras\u0131nda herhangi bir fark kalmayaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in her iki hareket de ayn\u0131 stat\u00fcde olacakt\u0131r. Daha sonra yapay uydular\u0131n yap\u0131lmas\u0131na temel olacak ilkeyi de b\u00f6ylece ilk kez ortaya atm\u0131\u015f olan Newton, Aristoteles fizik ve kozmolojisinin ay\u0131rm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu ay-alt\u0131 d\u00fcnya ile ay-\u00fcst\u00fc d\u00fcnyay\u0131 kesin bir \u015fekilde birle\u015ftirerek her iki b\u00f6lgede de ayn\u0131 fizik kurallar\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7erli olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na son vermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37119\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37119\" style=\"width: 237px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37119\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/5-4-237x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"237\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/5-4-237x300.jpg 237w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/5-4.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 237px) 100vw, 237px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37119\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u0130talyan bilimadam\u0131 Galileo Galilei. Newton kendi fizik yasalar\u0131n\u0131 geli\u015ftirirken, Galileo\u2019nun hareket yasalar\u0131n\u0131 kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Newton fizi\u011fi Descartes fizi\u011finden farkl\u0131 olarak, yaln\u0131zca bir yorumlama tekni\u011fiyle ve y\u00f6ntemiyle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 de\u011fildir. Koyr\u00e9, Newtonc\u0131 evrenin Kartezyen evrenden farkl\u0131 olarak iki de\u011fil (uzam ve devinim) \u00fc\u00e7 \u00f6\u011feden olu\u015ftu\u011funa i\u015faret eder:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cB\u00f6ylece, Descartes\u2019\u0131n evreninin tersine, Newton\u2019\u0131n evreni iki de\u011fil (uzam ve devinim) fakat \u00fc\u00e7 \u00f6\u011feden olu\u015fmu\u015f olarak tasarlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: (1) madde, yani kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 olarak ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve yal\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, sert ve de\u011fi\u015ftirilemez\u00a0 -ama \u00f6zde\u015f olmayan- sonsuz bir say\u0131da par\u00e7ac\u0131k; (2) <em>devinim, <\/em>yani par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131 varl\u0131klar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan etkilemeyen, ama yaln\u0131zca onlar\u0131 sonsuz, homojen bo\u015flukta oraya buraya aktaran tuhaf ve paradoksal ili\u015fki-durum; ve (3) <em>uzay, <\/em>yani cisimciklerin (ve onlardan olu\u015fmu\u015f cisimlerin) kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131k g\u00f6rmeden i\u00e7inde devinimlerini yerine getirdikleri bu sonsuz ve homojen bo\u015flu\u011fun kendisi. Bu Newton evreninde hi\u00e7 ku\u015fkusuz d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc bir bile\u015fen, yani evreni bir araya getirip tutan \u00e7ekim vard\u0131r. Ancak \u00e7ekim evrenin yap\u0131s\u0131nda bulunan bir \u00f6\u011fe de\u011fildir; ya fizik-\u00fcst\u00fc bir g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fcr -Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n eylemi- ya da Tanr\u0131\u2019ya ait do\u011fa kitab\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7indeki s\u00f6zdizim kural\u0131n\u0131 bildiren matematiksel bir s\u0131n\u0131rlamad\u0131r.\u201d (Koyr\u00e9, 2006: 21)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton\u2019\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck sentezi<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Gravitasyon (k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim) evrensel, yani evrenin her yerinde ayn\u0131 oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in hem a\u011f\u0131r cisimlerin d\u00fc\u015fmesine hem de Ay\u2019\u0131n ve gezegenlerin belli bir y\u00f6r\u00fcngede hareket etmelerine yol a\u00e7maktad\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc evrendeki b\u00fct\u00fcn cisimler birbirlerini \u00e7ekmektedir. Bu \u00e7ekimin miktar\u0131 ise cisimlerin k\u00fctlelerinin \u00e7arp\u0131m\u0131yla do\u011fru orant\u0131l\u0131, cisimlerin aralar\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n karesiyle ters orant\u0131l\u0131 olarak de\u011fi\u015fir. Bu yasa matematiksel olarak ve modern bir g\u00f6sterimle a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki form\u00fclle ifade edilebilir (Bu form\u00fcldeki \u00a0k\u00fctleler aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7ekim kuvvetini; G k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim sabitini; m1 ilk k\u00fctleyi, m2 ikinci k\u00fctleyi; r ise iki k\u00fctle aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6sterir): <em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evrendeki t\u00fcm cisimlerin uydu\u011fu yasan\u0131n bu kadar basit bir form\u00fclle ifade edilebilmesi do\u011fa felsefesi (fizik) a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan matemati\u011fin \u00f6nemini ortaya koyar. Bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda t\u00fcm do\u011fal olaylar\u0131n basit ve anla\u015f\u0131labilir bir bi\u00e7imde ifade edilebilece\u011fine ili\u015fkin umut yarat\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n yap\u0131t\u0131na verdi\u011fi ad\u0131 (Do\u011fal Felsefenin Matematiksel \u0130lkeleri) bu ba\u011flamda da de\u011ferlendirmek gerekir. \u201cAy-alt\u0131 d\u00fcnya\u201d i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lamayaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen matemati\u011fi yap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kullanarak \u00e7a\u011fda\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131rtm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton\u2019dan sonra bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda matemati\u011fin g\u00fcc\u00fcne duyulan g\u00fcven artarak devam etmi\u015ftir. 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda Alman fizik\u00e7i Heinrich Hertz\u2019in \u015fu s\u00f6zleri bu g\u00fcveni ifade eder:<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37121\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37121\" style=\"width: 198px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37121\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/6-198x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"198\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/6-198x300.jpg 198w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/6.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 198px) 100vw, 198px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37121\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Descartes\u2019a g\u00f6re ether, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u00e7evresinde bir girdap gibi d\u00f6nmekteydi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cMatematik form\u00fcllerin kendilerine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir varolu\u015flar\u0131 oldu\u011fu duygusuna kap\u0131lmamak olas\u0131 de\u011fil; yarat\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n bilgilerini a\u015fan bir bilgeli\u011fe sahipler, \u00f6yle ki, ilk yaz\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00fcnden daha fazlas\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7erdiklerine her g\u00fcn tan\u0131k oluyor, her g\u00fcn farkl\u0131 bir y\u00f6nlerini ke\u015ffediyoruz\u201d (Vigoureux, 2008: 303).<\/p>\n<p>Newton, evrenin her yerinde ge\u00e7erli oldu\u011funu kabul etti\u011fi k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim yasas\u0131 yoluyla ay-\u00fcst\u00fc d\u00fcnya ve ay-alt\u0131 d\u00fcnya ayr\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 kesin bir \u015fekilde ortadan kald\u0131rarak evrensel bir sisteme ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu sistem \u201cNewton\u2019\u0131n sentezi\u201d olarak bilinir. K\u00fctle\u00e7ekim ilkesinin Newton\u2019\u0131n sisteminde t\u00fcm evrene uygulanabilen bir yasa olmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6tesinde anlam\u0131 vard\u0131r. Bu yasa sadece evrenin farkl\u0131 d\u00fcnyalar\u0131n\u0131 birle\u015ftirdi\u011fi i\u00e7in de\u011fil, t\u00fcm evrende her \u015feyi birbirine ba\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131\/ili\u015fkilendirdi\u011fi i\u00e7in de evrenseldir. Descartes\u2019\u0131n g\u00f6kcisimlerinin hareketlerini a\u00e7\u0131klamak \u00fczere geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi girdap teorisi bu anlamda evrensellikten yoksundur. \u00d6rne\u011fin Descartes \u201cher gezegenin di\u011ferlerinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak uydular\u0131n\u0131 kendi girdab\u0131na \u00e7ekip d\u00f6nd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne\u201d (Vigoureux, 2008: 308) inan\u0131yordu. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde do\u011fa yasalar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131na \u201cevrensel\u201d s\u0131fat\u0131 eklemeye art\u0131k gerek duymasak da Newton d\u00f6neminde bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce \u00e7ok yeni ve devrimci oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in mutlaka vurgulanmas\u0131 gerekiyordu.<\/p>\n<p>G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde de \u201cNewton yasalar\u0131\u201d olarak bilinen \u00fc\u00e7 aksiyom klasik mekani\u011fin ve dinami\u011fin temelini olu\u015fturur. Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019daki ifadesiyle:<\/p>\n<p>1) Bir cisim ona uygulanan kuvvetler taraf\u0131ndan durumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmeye zorlanmad\u0131k\u00e7a dinginli\u011fini ya da do\u011fru bir \u00e7izgide \u00fcniform hareketini korur.<\/p>\n<p>2) Hareket de\u011fi\u015fimi uygulanan hareket ettirici kuvvet ile orant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r ve o kuvvetin uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 do\u011fru \u00e7izginin y\u00f6n\u00fcnde olur.<\/p>\n<p>3) Her etkiye her zaman kar\u015f\u0131t olan e\u015fit bir tepki vard\u0131r; ya da, iki cismin birbiri \u00fczerindeki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkileri her zaman e\u015fittir ve kar\u015f\u0131t par\u00e7alara y\u00f6neliktir.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n ilk yasas\u0131na g\u00f6re \u201cBir cisim ona uygulanan kuvvetler taraf\u0131ndan durumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmeye zorlanmad\u0131k\u00e7a dinginli\u011fini ya da do\u011fru bir \u00e7izgide \u00fcniform hareketini korur.<em>\u201d<\/em> Bu ilkeyi ilk olarak Galileo ortaya atm\u0131\u015f, Descartes ise onu tam olarak form\u00fcle eden ilk ki\u015fi olmu\u015ftu. Onlar\u0131n b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerden ba\u015flayan Newton bu ilkeyi (eylemsizlik) kendi mekanik sistemine dahil etmi\u015fti. Bu yasaya g\u00f6re, \u00fczerine hi\u00e7bir d\u0131\u015f kuvvet etkimeyen bir cisim, ayn\u0131 y\u00f6nde sabit bir h\u0131zla hareket etmeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrecektir. Bu yasa g\u00f6kcisimleri i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erlidir. E\u011fer bir gezegen \u201cona uygulanan kuvvetler taraf\u0131ndan durumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmeye zorlanmad\u0131k\u00e7a\u201d G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in yan\u0131ndan ge\u00e7ip sonsuza kadar d\u00fcmd\u00fcz gidecektir.<\/p>\n<p>Oysa ki Newton\u2019\u0131n matematiksel olarak kan\u0131tlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, gezegenler G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in \u00e7evresinde eliptik y\u00f6r\u00fcngeler \u00e7izerek dolan\u0131rlar. Peki, neden birinci yasa uyar\u0131nca beklenece\u011fi gibi, bir do\u011fru boyunca uzayda yol almazlar? \u0130\u015fte bu noktada Newton\u2019\u0131n ikinci yasas\u0131 i\u015flemeye ba\u015flar: \u201cHareket de\u011fi\u015fimi uygulanan hareket ettirici kuvvet ile orant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r ve o kuvvetin uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 do\u011fru \u00e7izginin y\u00f6n\u00fcnde olur.\u201d Bu yasan\u0131n daha basit ifadesi, y\u00f6r\u00fcngedeki gezegenin G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e do\u011fru dik a\u00e7\u0131da \u00e7ekildi\u011fini s\u00f6yler. Gezegenin birinci yasa uyar\u0131nca d\u0131\u015fa do\u011fru hareket etme e\u011filimi, G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in kendine do\u011fru \u00e7ekimiyle tam olarak dengelenir. D\u0131\u015fa do\u011fru hareket etme e\u011filimi Christiaan Huygens taraf\u0131ndan \u201cmerkezka\u00e7 kuvvet\u201d, \u00e7ekim kuvveti ise Newton taraf\u0131ndan \u201cmerkezcil kuvvet\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu ilke bir benzetmeyle \u015f\u00f6yle anlat\u0131labilir: Bir ipin ucuna ba\u011fl\u0131 bir cismi ba\u015f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n \u00fczerinde h\u0131zla d\u00f6nd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim. Bu \u00f6rnekte cisim bir gezegene, ipi tutan el G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e; aradaki ip ise, cismin d\u00fcz bir do\u011fru boyunca uzakla\u015f\u0131p gitmesini engelleyen \u201ckuvvet\u201de benzetilebilir.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37122\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37122\" style=\"width: 221px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37122\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/7-221x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"221\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/7-221x300.jpg 221w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/7.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 221px) 100vw, 221px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37122\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton 1671\u2019de bu aynal\u0131 teleskopu Kraliyet Cemiyeti\u2019ne sundu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Ger\u00e7ekte bir gezegeni G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e ba\u011flayan b\u00f6yle g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr bir ip olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, tam bu noktada Newton\u2019\u0131n tamamen kendine ait (orijinal) \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc yasas\u0131 i\u015flemeye ba\u015flar: \u201cHer etkiye her zaman kar\u015f\u0131t olan e\u015fit bir tepki vard\u0131r; ya da, iki cismin birbiri \u00fczerindeki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkileri her zaman e\u015fittir ve kar\u015f\u0131t par\u00e7alara y\u00f6neliktir.\u201d Bu yasa gere\u011fi,<\/p>\n<p>\u201cbir cisim di\u011ferine uzaktan bir kuvvet uygularsa, ikinci de birinciye e\u015fit ama z\u0131t y\u00f6nde bir kuvvet uygular. Ay D\u00fcnya\u2019y\u0131, D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n Ay\u2019\u0131 \u00e7ekti\u011fi b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte bir kuvvetle \u00e7eker. Bu, D\u00fcnya ve <em>elma<\/em> i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erlidir; \u015fu farkla ki, bu \u00f6rnekte uygulanan kuvvet elman\u0131n konumunda g\u00f6zle g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr bir de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe yol a\u00e7arken, D\u00fcnya \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in etkilenmez.\u201d (Christianson, 2000: 90)<\/p>\n<p>Newton bu \u00fc\u00e7 kuvvet yasas\u0131yla, modern fizi\u011fin dinamik dedi\u011fimiz dal\u0131n\u0131 kurmu\u015ftur. Birinci yasa eylemsizlik, ikinci yasa kuvvet ivme yarat\u0131r, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc yasa ise \u201cetki-tepki\u201d ilkesi olarak bilinir. \u2018Etki tepki yasas\u0131\u2019 \u00e7o\u011fu kez yanl\u0131\u015f bir bi\u00e7imde \u2018etki ve tepkinin sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n e\u015fitli\u011fi\u2019 olarak anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r. E\u015fit olan kuvvetlerdir, yoksa bu kuvvetlerin neden olduklar\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re \u00e7ekim kuvveti cisimlerin a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelir. Newton \u201cters kare yasas\u0131na ba\u015fvurarak bir cisim d\u00fc\u015ferken\u201d \u00e7ekim kuvvetinin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ivmenin hemen hemen sabit kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bu nedenle Newton\u2019\u0131n genel \u00e7ekim yasas\u0131n\u0131n Galileo\u2019nun sabit ivme ilkesini do\u011frulayacak bir \u015fekilde i\u00e7erdi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenebilir. Newton\u2019\u0131n hareketi a\u00e7\u0131klarken \u00e7ekim kuvveti kavram\u0131n\u0131 kullanmas\u0131 Galileo\u2019nun yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde f\u0131rlat\u0131lan cisimlerle ilgili olarak ortaya koydu\u011fu sorunun daha do\u011fru bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme kavu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Galileo bu sorunu, cismin d\u00fcz bir y\u00fczeyin bir noktas\u0131ndan f\u0131rlat\u0131ld\u0131ktan sonra bir ba\u015fka bir noktas\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fmesi olarak ele alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Galileo\u2019ya g\u00f6re f\u0131rlat\u0131lan bir cismin izleyece\u011fi yol bir parabol olacakt\u0131r. Newton ayn\u0131 sorunu k\u00fcresel bir y\u00fczeyin (\u00f6rne\u011fin yery\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn) bir noktas\u0131ndan havaya f\u0131rlat\u0131lan bir cismin daha sonra bu k\u00fcrenin merkezine \u00e7ekilmesi \u015feklinde ele al\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fekilde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde havaya f\u0131rlat\u0131lan cisimlerin izledi\u011fi yolun bir parabol de\u011fil, elipsin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc oldu\u011fu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. F\u0131rlat\u0131lan cisimlerin yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde izledi\u011fi yol, Ay\u2019\u0131n Yer \u00e7evresindeki eliptik y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc gibidir (Bixby, 1997: 146).<\/p>\n<p>Newton gezegen hareketleri sorununu \u00e7\u00f6zerken, ayn\u0131 zamanda, antik d\u00f6nemden beri sorulagelen \u201cEvren sistemini harekete ge\u00e7iren \u015fey nedir?\u201d sorusunu da Descartes ve Kepler gibi do\u011fal bir nedene ba\u011flayarak, ama bu kez kesin olarak yan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015f oluyordu. Daha \u00f6nce bu \u201c\u015fey\u201din do\u011fa felsefesi i\u00e7inde Aristoteles\u2019in ortaya att\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u0130lk Devindirici ya da geleneksel\/dinsel bir bak\u0131\u015fla bazen bir gemi, bir at ve bazen de melekler oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37124\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37124\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37124\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8.jpg 300w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8-80x60.jpg 80w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8-100x75.jpg 100w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8-180x135.jpg 180w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/8-238x178.jpg 238w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37124\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">B\u00fcy\u00fck Kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131z \u00f6nce 1680\u2019de, sonra tekrar 1681\u2019de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. John Flamsteed, ikisinin de ayn\u0131 kuyruklu y\u0131ld\u0131z oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yledi. Newton ayn\u0131 fikirde de\u011fildi, ancak Flamsteed\u2019in verilerini inceledikten sonra fikrini de\u011fi\u015ftirdi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cAristoteles her bir g\u00f6kcismi i\u00e7in bir hareket ettirici, bir t\u00fcr ak\u0131l \u00f6ng\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc ama bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f tektanr\u0131l\u0131 bir din taraf\u0131ndan kabul edilebilecek bir \u015fey de\u011fildi. K\u00fcreleri hareket ettirenler meleklerdi ve baz\u0131 Orta\u00e7a\u011f resimlerinde melekler manivelalarla g\u00f6k cisimlerini hareket ettirirken g\u00f6sterilmekteydi.\u201d (Whitfield 2008: 94)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Bo\u015flukta uzaktan etki<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019da g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcndeki hareketlerin uzaktan etkiyle bi\u00e7imlendikleri eylemsizlik yasas\u0131yla i\u015fleyen bir evren sistemi kurmu\u015ftu. K\u00fctle\u00e7ekim yasas\u0131na g\u00f6re evrendeki b\u00fct\u00fcn cisimler kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 olarak birbirlerini \u00e7ekmekteydi. Ancak bu iki temel soruna yol a\u00e7\u0131yordu. Aradaki onca mesafeye kar\u015f\u0131n, s\u00f6zgelimi evrenin iki ucunda yer alan iki cisim birbirleri \u00fczerinde nas\u0131l etkide bulunabilir? Bu soru \u00f6nemli olmakla birlikte yan\u0131ts\u0131z de\u011fildi; \u00f6rne\u011fin m\u0131knat\u0131s\u0131n etkisini uzay\u0131 dolduran g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez bir madde arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla iletti\u011fi kabul ediliyordu. K\u0131saca insanlar uzaktan etkiye al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. As\u0131l sorun bo\u015flukta uzaktan etkiyi varsaymaktan kaynaklan\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n<p>Daha \u00f6nce bo\u015flu\u011fu a\u015farak uzaktan etki g\u00f6steren \u00e7ekim g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc Frans\u0131z matematik\u00e7i Gilles Roberval (1602-1675) taraf\u0131ndan bir varsay\u0131m olarak ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Roberval\u2019a g\u00f6re Yer\u2019in G\u00fcne\u015f etraf\u0131ndaki y\u00f6r\u00fcngesi bir d\u00fc\u015fme hareketinin de\u011fil, Yer\u2019in G\u00fcne\u015f taraf\u0131ndan \u0131\u015f\u0131nsal bir \u00e7ekimle \u00e7ekilmesinin bir sonucudur. Roberval\u2019e g\u00f6re G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in \u0131\u015f\u0131nsal \u00e7ekimi, uzay\u0131 dolduran etherin Yer\u2019e uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Ar\u015fimet kuvveti taraf\u0131ndan dengelenmekteydi. Mersenne\u2019e yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir mektupta Descartes bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc \u015fiddetle ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cB\u00f6yle bir \u00e7ekime inanabilmemiz i\u00e7in evrenin her yan\u0131nda birbirleri olmadan yapamayan farkl\u0131 ruhlar oldu\u011funa inanmak yetmez, bu ruhlar\u0131n aralar\u0131nda bir haberci olmadan \u00e7ok uzaklar\u0131nda olan biteni anlayacak ve ona g\u00f6re g\u00fc\u00e7lerini uygulayacak kadar da ak\u0131ll\u0131 olmalar\u0131 gerekir.\u201d (Vigoureux, 2008: 198)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37125\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37125\" style=\"width: 220px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37125\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/9-220x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/9-220x300.jpg 220w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/9.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 220px) 100vw, 220px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37125\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019\u0131n Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica\u2019s\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7 kapa\u011f\u0131. K\u0131saca Principia olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan yap\u0131t ilk olarak 5 Temmuz 1687\u2019de Latince olarak yay\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Bo\u015flukta uzaktan etki Descartes\u00e7\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan \u201castrolojik bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u201d olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f ve bunu savunanlar\u0131 do\u011fa felsefesine ok\u00fclt nitelik sokmakla ele\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. Ger\u00e7ekten de Newton\u2019\u0131n uzaktan etki ilkesi herhangi bir mekanizmadan \u00e7ok daha gizemli g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyordu. Leibniz ve Huygens gibi Descartes\u00e7\u0131 gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler, Newton\u2019\u0131 mekanist felsefenin bilimden att\u0131\u011f\u0131 ok\u00fclt kuvvetleri yeniden canland\u0131rmakla su\u00e7lad\u0131lar. Onlara g\u00f6re k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimini kabul etmek bizi cisimlerin bir ruhu oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131m\u0131na g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcr. Bu da fiziksel nesnelere cin, peri gibi ok\u00fclt nitelikler y\u00fcklemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak demektir.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cBu tepki, Newton\u2019\u0131n k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm b\u00fcy\u00fck bilimsel devrimler gibi epistemolojik temele dayan\u0131yor olmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanmaktayd\u0131. Newton\u2019\u0131n kitab\u0131na verdi\u011fi ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00f6nemi de buradad\u0131r: Descartes\u2019in mekanist bilimi, varsay\u0131msal yap\u0131 ve ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131 zincirleriyle i\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcrken, uzaktan etki ve gravite anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 matematiksel analize dayan\u0131yor ve bu b\u00fcy\u00fck kuvvetlerin k\u00f6kenine ya da do\u011fas\u0131na ili\u015fkin bir varsay\u0131m \u00f6nermiyordu.\u201d\u00a0 (Whitfield, 2008: 193)<\/p>\n<p>Newton Descartes\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini, \u00f6ncelikle, ilkelere dayanarak reddetmi\u015ftir: Yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 hesaplamalar\u0131 ether olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan bir ortam\u0131 varsayarak yapmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re do\u011fal olaylar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamaya yetecek kadar neden varsa ba\u015fka nedenler ileri s\u00fcrmenin gere\u011fi yoktur. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla b\u00f6yle bir varsay\u0131ma ihtiyac\u0131 yoktur. \u0130kinci ve daha \u00f6nemli bir neden ise \u015fudur: Newton t\u00fcm teorisini Descartes\u00e7\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin tersine do\u011fal nesnelerin birbirlerine de\u011fmemeleri \u00fczerine kurmu\u015ftur. E\u011fer cisimlerin birbirlerine de\u011fmesini sa\u011flayan \u201ccisimlerin par\u00e7alar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ince aral\u0131klarla \u00f6zg\u00fcrce yay\u0131lan bir ortam\u0131\u201d (Newton, 1998: 67) kabul etseydi kendi teorisiyle \u00e7eli\u015fecekti.<\/p>\n<p>Asl\u0131nda Newton <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019dan (1687) \u00f6nceki d\u00f6neminde ether varsay\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde kabul etmekteydi. 1679\u2019da annesinin \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonraki alt\u0131 y\u0131l i\u00e7inde Newton\u2019\u0131n tam bir yal\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k i\u00e7inde Hermetik gelenek ve simya \u00fczerine \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Yine bu d\u00f6nemde \u00e7ekme ve itme etkilerini Hermetik gelene\u011fin ok\u00fclt \u2018sempati\u2019 ve \u2018antipati\u2019 terimleri i\u00e7inde yorumlamaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f ve bunlar\u0131n matematiksel \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemeye a\u00e7\u0131k olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Ayn\u0131 y\u0131l (1679) ether g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc de terk etti\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. 35 y\u0131l kadar sonra, <em>Opticks<\/em>\u2019in ikinci bas\u0131m\u0131nda, ether g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, k\u00fctle\u00e7ekiminin nedeni olarak, Newton\u2019da yeniden ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimini sadece ethere dayanarak de\u011fil, \u201ccismin \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00f6\u011felerini bir arada tutan yap\u0131\u015fma\u201d gibi \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 ba\u015fka olgularla da a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131. T\u00fcm bu \u00e7abalara kar\u015f\u0131n k\u00fctle\u00e7ekiminin nedeni anla\u015f\u0131lamaz olarak kald\u0131. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde de durum farkl\u0131 de\u011fildir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cOn sekizinci y\u00fczy\u0131l d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi -yaln\u0131zca bir iki istisna d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda- anla\u015f\u0131lamaz\u0131 kabullendi. Ernst Mach\u2019\u0131n dile getirdi\u011fi gibi: \u2018A\u00e7\u0131klaman\u0131n verili bir ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7 noktas\u0131 olarak, uzaktan eylemde bulunan kuvvetleri kullanmak al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131k oldu, ve k\u00f6kenlerini ara\u015ft\u0131rma g\u00fcd\u00fcs\u00fc neredeyse b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn ortadan kalkt\u0131.\u2019 Sonralar\u0131 sorun \u00e7ok ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde alan kavram\u0131 i\u00e7ine gizlendi.\u201d (Koyr\u00e9, 2006: 270)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37126\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37126\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37126\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/10-300x136.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"136\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37126\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton Principia\u2019da kuramlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u0131namak ve do\u011frulamak i\u00e7in ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131z g\u00f6zlemleri kulland\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Newton, k\u00fctle\u00e7ekiminin nas\u0131l i\u015fledi\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekinmeden itiraf etmi\u015f olsa da, k\u00fctle\u00e7ekiminin \u00e7e\u015fitli durumlarda nas\u0131l i\u015fledi\u011fini en ince ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131na kadar g\u00f6sterebilmi\u015ftir; dahas\u0131 gezegenlerin devinimlerini matematik hesaplamalarla do\u011fru olarak tahmin edebilmi\u015ftir. Newton\u2019\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131, mekanik felsefeyi ok\u00fcltizmin (do\u011fal b\u00fcy\u00fcn\u00fcn) etki ve g\u00fc\u00e7lerinin ger\u00e7ekli\u011fine olan inan\u00e7la bir araya getirebilmesinde yatar.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton ve optik<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton\u2019\u0131 optik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na y\u00f6nelten \u015fey d\u00f6nemindeki mercekli teleskoplar\u0131n kusurlu olmalar\u0131, yani renkli ve \u00e7arp\u0131k g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc vermeleriydi. Bu kusurlar\u0131 elemek i\u00e7in, 1668\u2019de ilk yans\u0131t\u0131c\u0131 teleskobu tasarlad\u0131 ve yapt\u0131. Bu teleskopta \u0131\u015f\u0131k, i\u00e7b\u00fckey bir ayna taraf\u0131ndan toplan\u0131yordu. 1672 y\u0131l\u0131nda ise beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n, prizmadan ge\u00e7erken renklere ayr\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 inceledi. Prizma asl\u0131nda MS 1. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri bilinmekteydi. Bir prizma ile, beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131, spektral renklerine ay\u0131rd\u0131 ve izole etti\u011fi her rengin, ikinci bir prizma kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bir daha ayr\u0131\u015fmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterdi. Newton, ba\u015fka bir deneyde ise renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n, ikinci bir prizmadan ge\u00e7irildiklerinde \u00f6zg\u00fcn k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131na d\u00f6nd\u00fcklerini ve yeniden bir araya gelerek beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 olu\u015fturduklar\u0131n\u0131 da g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. T\u00fcm bu deneylerin sonucunda Newton, renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n birbirinden ayr\u0131 oldu\u011funu ve beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n da hepsinin bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bu olduk\u00e7a \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 bir sonu\u00e7tu.<\/p>\n<p>Aristoteles\u2019ten Descartes\u2019a kadar genelde kabul edilen, renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n, G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 olan saf \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n bozulmas\u0131yla olu\u015ftu\u011fuydu. Newton\u2019\u0131n zaman\u0131ndaki do\u011fa filozoflar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu, Aristoteles\u2019in renklerin ayd\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n (beyaz) ve karanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n (siyah) kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc benimsenmekteydi. K\u0131saca t\u00fcm renklerin saf beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fik durumlar\u0131 olduklar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. B\u00f6yle d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnenlerden biri de \u201cKraliyet Cemiyeti\u201dnin Deney M\u00fcd\u00fcr\u00fc Robert Hooke\u2019du (1635-1702). Hooke, <em>Micrographia<\/em> (1665) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda renklerin e\u011fik ve karma\u015f\u0131k a\u00e7\u0131larla yay\u0131lan \u0131\u015f\u0131klardan olu\u015ftu\u011funu savunmu\u015ftu. Hooke\u2019a g\u00f6re, renkler genel olarak, a\u00e7\u0131ktan koyuya do\u011fru bir derecelendirme olu\u015fturuyordu. K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 saf beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa en yak\u0131n oland\u0131 ve mavi de siyahtan \u00f6nceki son basamakt\u0131. Newton, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 deneylerle farkl\u0131 renklerin farkl\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131larda k\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kan\u0131tlayarak Hooke\u2019un teorisine kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc b\u00fcy\u00fck tart\u0131\u015fmayla kar\u015f\u0131land\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc herkes, beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131, yani \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk saf bi\u00e7imi olan G\u00fcne\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n<p>Newton \u201cKraliyet Cemiyeti\u201dnin mesleki ilkelerine uygun olarak, <em>Optick<\/em>\u2019teki amac\u0131n\u0131 okuyucuya \u015fu s\u00f6zlerle bildiriyordu: \u201cBu kitapta benim amac\u0131m, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00f6zelliklerini hipotezlerle a\u00e7\u0131klamak de\u011fil, uslamlama yoluyla \u00f6nermek ve deneylerle kan\u0131tlamakt\u0131r.\u201d B\u00f6yle yazm\u0131\u015f olsa da Newton, beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131kla ilgili teolojik bir ara\u015ft\u0131rmaya girmekten kendini alamad\u0131. Sonunda Newton, t\u0131pk\u0131 Kepler\u2019in Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n neden g\u00f6ksel daireler yerine eliptik y\u00f6r\u00fcngeleri se\u00e7mi\u015f olabilece\u011fini sordu\u011fu gibi, Newton da Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n neden beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131klar\u0131n kar\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n bir sonucu olarak se\u00e7mi\u015f olabilece\u011fini sordu. Yan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131 bulmak i\u00e7in Pythagoras\u2019\u0131n antik b\u00fcy\u00fc gelene\u011fi olan \u201cK\u00fcrelerin M\u00fczi\u011fi\u201dne bakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton <em>Opticks<\/em>\u2019te t\u0131pk\u0131 yedi nota aras\u0131ndaki oktavlar gibi, yans\u0131yan bir tayf\u0131n renkleri aras\u0131ndaki oranlar\u0131n da ayn\u0131 oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr:<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37127\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37127\" style=\"width: 216px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37127\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/11-216x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"216\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/11-216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/11.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 216px) 100vw, 216px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37127\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u0130lk kez 1704\u2019te yay\u0131mlanan Opticks\u2019in i\u00e7 kapa\u011f\u0131. Newton bu kitab\u0131n\u0131 Latince yerine \u0130ngilizce yazarak, Principia\u2019yla oldu\u011fundan daha geni\u015f bir okuyucu kitlesine ula\u015fmay\u0131 ba\u015farm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cTayf\u0131n \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015fece\u011fi \u015fekilde K\u00e2\u011f\u0131d\u0131 tuttum&#8230; G\u00f6zleri Renkleri benden daha keskin ay\u0131rt edebilen bir Yard\u0131mc\u0131m bu s\u0131rada D\u00fcz \u00c7izgilerle&#8230; Tayf boyunca Renklerin S\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 i\u015faretledi; k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131n\u0131n&#8230;, turuncunun&#8230;, sar\u0131n\u0131n&#8230;, ye\u015filin&#8230;, mavinin&#8230;, morun&#8230; ve eflatunun&#8230; Bu i\u015flemi defalarca, ayn\u0131 ve farkl\u0131 K\u00e2\u011f\u0131tlarla yineledikten sonra, G\u00f6zlemlerin birbirleriyle uyumlu oldu\u011funu g\u00f6rd\u00fcm ve [tayf]&#8230; s\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc etti\u011fim \u00c7izgilerle, t\u0131pk\u0131 M\u00fczik Akordlar\u0131na benzer bi\u00e7imde ayr\u0131l\u0131yordu&#8230; b\u00f6ylelikle, bu Perdenin \u00fczerindeki bir Perdenin, bir Tonun, Min\u00f6r \u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc, d\u00f6rtl\u00fc, be\u015fli, Maj\u00f6r alt\u0131l\u0131, yedili ve sekizlinin ve bu Aral\u0131klar\u0131n g\u00f6sterildi\u011fi yerler&#8230; birka\u00e7 Rengin (k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131, turuncu, sar\u0131, ye\u015fil, mavi, mor, eflatun) kaplad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Alanlard\u0131.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 227-228)<\/p>\n<p>Tayfta i\u015faretledi\u011fi yedi farkl\u0131 rengin, bir oktav\u0131 olu\u015fturan yedi notan\u0131n seslendirilmesi i\u00e7in monokordda ayn\u0131 uzunlu\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelen ge\u00e7i\u015flerin yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Newton\u2019\u0131n \u015femas\u0131na g\u00f6re beyaz \u0131\u015f\u0131k, t\u00fcm di\u011fer \u0131\u015f\u0131klar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131klar\u0131 \u201cseslerin\u201d g\u00f6rkemli bir uyumuydu. Bu noktada bilim tarih\u00e7isi John Henry ilgin\u00e7 bir ayr\u0131nt\u0131ya i\u015faret eder:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAsl\u0131nda, 1670-1672\u2019de Cambridge \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde \u00f6\u011frencilerine verdi\u011fi optik derslerinde Newton, tayfta ancak be\u015f rengi belirleyebildi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemi\u015ftir; ama \u2018imgeyi birbirleriyle daha incelikli orant\u0131l\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcmlere ay\u0131rabilmek i\u00e7in\u2019 mor ve turuncuyu \u00f6zellikle eklemi\u015ftir. Francis Bacon bunu onaylamazd\u0131.\u201d (Henry, 2016: 228) Ger\u00e7ekte g\u00f6kku\u015fa\u011f\u0131nda en fazla be\u015f ya da alt\u0131 renk g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. Bug\u00fcn hepimizin g\u00f6kku\u015fa\u011f\u0131nda yedi renk oldu\u011funa inanmam\u0131z\u0131n tek nedeni Newton\u2019\u0131n otoritesidir; onun b\u00fcy\u00fck bir bilim insan\u0131 olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Newton\u2019un en b\u00fcy\u00fck ara\u015ft\u0131rma konusu teolojiydi ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k konusu da bir istisna de\u011fildi:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n, Newton i\u00e7in optik yasalar\u0131ndan daha ba\u015fka bir \u00f6nemi vard\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc hem H\u0131ristiyan hem de Neoplatoncu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce sistemlerinde, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa tanr\u0131sal bir \u00f6z y\u00fcklenmi\u015fti. \u0130ncil\u2019de anlat\u0131lan yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f \u00f6yk\u00fcs\u00fcnde, Tanr\u0131 her \u015feyden \u00f6nce \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k, Neoplatoncu felsefede tanr\u0131sall\u0131\u011f\u0131n hem sembol\u00fc hem de arac\u0131s\u0131yd\u0131. I\u015f\u0131k \u00e7evresinde olu\u015fturulmu\u015f metafizi\u011fin H\u0131ristiyan Avrupas\u0131\u2019nda uzun ve se\u00e7kin bir ge\u00e7mi\u015fi vard\u0131. Newton daha sonra, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n simya literat\u00fcr\u00fcnde de, tanr\u0131sal bir yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirildi\u011fini g\u00f6recekti.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 33-34)<\/p>\n<p>Bununla birlikte Newton\u2019\u0131n renk problemini k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir bi\u00e7imde d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. Descartes ve Hooke\u2019dan farkl\u0131 olarak Newton \u0131\u015f\u0131ktaki renklere neden olan de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fin, \u201c\u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011fal bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi oldu\u011funa\u201d inand\u0131. Renkler (genel olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi) do\u011fal cisimlerin \u0131\u015f\u0131klar\u0131 yans\u0131tmas\u0131 ya da k\u0131rmas\u0131yla olu\u015fmuyordu, bunlar Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle \u201cfarkl\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar i\u00e7in farkl\u0131 olan orijinal ve do\u011fal \u00f6zelliklerdi: Baz\u0131lar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131y\u0131, baz\u0131lar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca sar\u0131y\u0131 ve baz\u0131lar\u0131 da yaln\u0131zca ye\u015fili g\u00f6steriyor ve bu b\u00f6yle devam ediyor\u201ddu (Rossi, 2009: 248). Newton renk sorununu yaln\u0131zca bir alg\u0131lama (psikoloji) sorunu olmaktan \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Renk ayn\u0131 zamanda k\u0131r\u0131lma a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 hesaplanabilen ve matematiksel olarak ele al\u0131nabilen fiziksel bir problemdi. Bir cismin rengi y\u00fczeyinin so\u011furganl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla ili\u015fkiliydi. Newton\u2019\u0131n s\u00f6zleriyle:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cK\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnen ya da nesnenin k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnmesini sa\u011flayan ya da k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131y\u0131 \u00fcreten [&#8230;] ve b\u00f6yle s\u00fcren \u015feye \u0131\u015f\u0131n diyece\u011fim. Asl\u0131nda \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar renkli de\u011fildir. Bunlar\u0131n i\u00e7inde \u015fu ya da bu renk konusunda bir alg\u0131 uyand\u0131ran belirli bir g\u00fc\u00e7 ya da yetenek d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir \u015fey yoktur. T\u0131pk\u0131 bir zilin sesinin [&#8230;] bir titre\u015fimden ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmamas\u0131 gibi, havada nesne taraf\u0131ndan yay\u0131lan bir hareket d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir \u015fey yoktur ve bu titre\u015fimler duyu sisteminde bir ses bi\u00e7iminde alg\u0131lan\u0131r, i\u015fte bir nesnenin rengi de \u015fu ya da bu t\u00fcrde bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 di\u011ferlerinden daha \u00e7ok yans\u0131tma e\u011filimi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir \u015fey de\u011fildir; \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar da bu onlar\u0131n \u015fu ya da bu hareketi duyu sistemine yayma yetene\u011finden ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildir ve duyu sisteminde bu hareketler renk bi\u00e7iminde alg\u0131lan\u0131rlar.\u201d (Rossi, 2009: 248-249<strong>)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton ve simya<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Simyan\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca hedefi metalleri alt\u0131na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrmeyi ba\u015farmakt\u0131. Ama simya hi\u00e7bir zaman, yaln\u0131zca bir maddenin incelenmesi i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, simyac\u0131lar gen\u00e7li\u011fi yeniden kazand\u0131ran ve ya\u015fam\u0131 belirsizce uzatan gizemli bir iksir \u00fcretmeye de \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rlard\u0131. Simya Newton\u2019\u0131n d\u00f6neminde, ba\u015fka yerlerde oldu\u011fu gibi, \u0130ngiltere\u2019de de \u00f6l\u00fcmle cezaland\u0131r\u0131labilen tehlikeli bir u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>17. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u0130ngiltere\u2019sinde b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fclerin kaynayan kazanlarda b\u00fcy\u00fc yapmas\u0131 tehlikeli ama \u2018s\u0131radan\u2019 bir u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131. Shakespeare\u2019in<em> Macbeth\u2019<\/em>inde, bir ma\u011farada ge\u00e7en sahnede, \u00fc\u00e7 b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fc kad\u0131n\u0131n kaynayan bir kazan\u0131n etraf\u0131nda hep bir a\u011f\u0131zdan \u015fark\u0131 s\u00f6ylemesi de ola\u011fand\u0131: \u201c<em>Dert \u00fcst\u00fcne dert, bela \u00fcst\u00fcne bela &#8211; Yan ate\u015fim yan, kayna kazan\u0131m kayna &#8211; At\u0131p i\u00e7ine, kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131ral\u0131m kaynayan kazan\u0131; \u00dcste kurba\u011fa aya\u011f\u0131 semender g\u00f6z\u00fc; Bir par\u00e7a k\u00f6pek dili, az da yarasa t\u00fcy\u00fc.<\/em>\u201d (\u00e7ev. B\u00fclent Bozkurt, Remzi Kitabevi)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37128\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37128\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37128\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/12-300x185.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"185\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37128\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019un \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli dedi\u011fi deneyi g\u00f6steren bu \u00e7izimde, G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019ten gelen \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n bir prizmadan ge\u00e7erek k\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131ktan sonra ikinci bir prizmadan ge\u00e7erken bir kez daha k\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Renkler hi\u00e7 de\u011fi\u015fmemi\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Bu a\u00e7\u0131dan bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Newton\u2019\u0131n evinde de i\u00e7i garip maddelerle dolu bir kazan bulundurdu\u011funun \u00f6\u011frenilmesi bir skandal say\u0131labilir, ki say\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: Do\u011fa filozoflar\u0131n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc nas\u0131l olur da b\u00fcy\u00fcyle -\u00e7a\u011fda\u015f bilimadamlar\u0131n\u0131n yok etmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 hurafenin ta kendisiyle- u\u011fra\u015f\u0131rd\u0131? Christianson\u2019a g\u00f6re, Newton\u2019dan kalan yaz\u0131lardaki d\u00f6rt milyon s\u00f6zc\u00fckten bir milyon kadar\u0131 simya \u00fczerinedir. Bu say\u0131 fizik ya da matematik \u00fczerine yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n her birinden daha fazlad\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cTuhaf g\u00f6r\u00fcnse de, Isaac Newton belki de t\u00fcm simyac\u0131lar\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fcyd\u00fc. \u00d6ld\u00fckten sonra geriye simya \u00fczerine y\u00fczlerce elyazmas\u0131 sayfa ve <em>Index Chemicus<\/em> (Kimya \u0130ndeksi) adl\u0131 ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc belge b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u2018\u0130ndeks\u2019te, d\u00fczinelerce simya kitab\u0131nda bulunan bilgilere en az\u0131ndan 5000 at\u0131f i\u00e7eren 879 ba\u015fl\u0131k vard\u0131. Newton, say\u0131s\u0131z deney yapmas\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7\u0131rabilece\u011fi en k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir ipucunun bile D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayacak evrensel maddenin anahtar\u0131n\u0131 gizliyor olabilece\u011fi korkusuyla simya \u00fczerine her \u015feyi ne yap\u0131p edip okumu\u015ftu.\u201d (Christianson, 2000: 72-73)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n yay\u0131mlanmam\u0131\u015f simya elyazmalar\u0131n\u0131 1930\u2019larda ele ge\u00e7iren ve \u00fczerlerinde ilk incelemelerden birini yapan tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f \u0130ngiliz iktisat\u00e7\u0131 John Maynard Keynes oldu. Elyazmalar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyen Keynes, provokatif bir bi\u00e7imde, Newton\u2019\u0131n \u2018ilk modern biliminsan\u0131\u2019 de\u011fil \u2018son b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fc\u2019 oldu\u011fu a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131n\u0131 yapt\u0131: \u201c[Newton] b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fclerin sonuncusu, Babillilerin ve S\u00fcmerlerin sonuncusu, g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr ve anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r d\u00fcnyaya bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 10.000 y\u0131ldan biraz daha az bir s\u00fcre \u00f6nce entelekt\u00fcel kal\u0131t\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 \u00fcretmeye ba\u015flayanlarla ayn\u0131 olan son b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrd\u00fc.\u201d (Yard\u0131ml\u0131, 1998: 18)<\/p>\n<p>Asl\u0131nda Newton\u2019u simya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaya iten simyan\u0131n ruhsal boyutuydu. Bununla birlikte Newton\u2019\u0131n geleneksel olmayan kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc hedefleri vard\u0131. Newton 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l mekanik\u00e7i felsefelerin teolojik ve bilimsel problemlerini simya arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla \u00e7\u00f6zmeyi ama\u00e7l\u0131yordu. 1660\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda Newton teolojik bir problemle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fm\u0131\u015f ve simyan\u0131n buna bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm getirebilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewton ve daha ya\u015fl\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fda\u015flar\u0131 Isaac Barrow (1630-77), Henry More ve Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688) ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131llarda yeniden canlanan mekanik\u00e7i felsefelerin (\u00f6zellikle Descartes\u2019\u0131nkinin) ateist potansiyellerinden endi\u015fe duymaktayd\u0131lar. Antik \u00e7a\u011flar\u0131n atomcular\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki anlam\u0131yla tam bir ateist olmasalar da, genelde b\u00f6yle g\u00f6r\u00fclmekteydiler, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc maddeyi olu\u015fturan atomlar\u0131n tanr\u0131sal bir yol g\u00f6sterme olmadan rasgele hareket ettiklerini ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdi. Descartes, Gassendi ve Charleton, yeniden canlanan mekanik\u00e7i felsefelerin antik atomculu\u011fa paralel olarak ateizme neden olaca\u011f\u0131 endi\u015felerini azaltmak i\u00e7in b\u00fcy\u00fck u\u011fra\u015f vermi\u015flerdi.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 35)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37129\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37129\" style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37129\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/13-235x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"235\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/13-235x300.jpg 235w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/13.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 235px) 100vw, 235px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37129\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019\u0131n \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131yla ilgili \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 nitelikteki makalesi Kraliyet Cemiyeti taraf\u0131ndan yay\u0131mland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, d\u00f6nemin en b\u00fcy\u00fck do\u011fabilimcisi Christiaan Huygens bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 \u201cfazlas\u0131yla usta i\u015fi\u201d diye nitelemi\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n mekanik\u00e7i filozoflar\u0131 H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k ile atomcu felsefeyi uzla\u015ft\u0131rma y\u00f6n\u00fcnde \u00e7ok \u00e7aba harcam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Hatta baz\u0131lar\u0131 daha da ileri giderek, antik\u00e7a\u011f atomcular\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 olarak, atomlar\u0131n aras\u0131na bir H\u0131ristiyan Tanr\u0131 yerle\u015ftirmi\u015flerdi. Atomlar\u0131n d\u00fczenleni\u015fi yaln\u0131zca tanr\u0131sal g\u00fc\u00e7lerle a\u00e7\u0131klanabilirdi; do\u011fada bir tasar\u0131m (planlanm\u0131\u015f bir organizasyon) vard\u0131. Tasar\u0131m bir \u201cTasar\u0131mc\u0131\u201dn\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyordu. Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l atomculu\u011funun temelini olu\u015fturdu.<\/p>\n<p>\u201c\u0130\u015fin zor yan\u0131, Tanr\u0131n\u0131n, modern bilimin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 fiziksel, yasalara g\u00f6re i\u015fleyen evreni nas\u0131l i\u015fletti\u011fi \u00fczerinde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ve bu zorluk \u00f6zellikle, yaln\u0131zca madde ve hareketin kabul g\u00f6ren a\u00e7\u0131klamalar oldu\u011fu Kartezyen (Descartes\u00e7\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bi\u00e7imi) sistemde hissediliyordu. Descartes, Tanr\u0131n\u0131n evreni s\u00fcrekli ve aktif olarak iradesi ile destekledi\u011fini s\u00f6ylese bile, Henry More ve \u00f6tekileri, Descartes\u2019\u0131n Tanr\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 saray\u0131nda oturmayan bir krala benzetiyorlard\u0131. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta maddeye hareket vermi\u015f, fakat daha sonra tanr\u0131sal dikkatini yaratt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinden \u00e7ekmi\u015fti.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 37)<\/p>\n<p>Newton hem fizi\u011fi hem de teolojiyi (ki bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olmalar\u0131 gerekiyordu) ilgilendiren soruna do\u011frudan ve d\u00fcr\u00fcst bir bi\u00e7imde yakla\u015ft\u0131. Mekanik do\u011fa felsefesi, yani hareket halindeki maddenin mekanik eylemi yeterli de\u011fildi. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re mekanik eylem do\u011fada g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz (buna \u2018k\u00f6r metafizik gereklilik\u2019 ad\u0131n\u0131 vermi\u015fti) \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi \u00fcretemezdi; her zaman ve her yerde ayn\u0131yd\u0131. Newton i\u00e7in \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi sa\u011flayan neden maddenin i\u00e7indeki Tanr\u0131sal ilkeydi. Newton simya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda bunu arad\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>Bilim tarih\u00e7isi ve \u00f6nde gelen Newton uzmanlar\u0131ndan Richard S. Westfall bize, Newton\u2019\u0131n simya sanat\u0131na \u201cba\u015fka hi\u00e7bir simyac\u0131n\u0131n asla sahip olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6zg\u00fcn entelekt\u00fcel ara\u00e7larla\u201d yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yler. Onun matematik\u00e7i y\u00f6n\u00fc her zaman bask\u0131n \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n en ba\u015f\u0131ndan mekanik\u00e7i felsefeye kar\u015f\u0131 mesafeli oldu\u011fu ve mekanik\u00e7i felsefenin kategorilerinin do\u011fan\u0131n karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade etmekte fazlas\u0131yla k\u0131s\u0131tlay\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011funa inand\u0131\u011f\u0131 da g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde bulundurulmal\u0131d\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n simyaya kar\u015f\u0131 olan uzun s\u00fcreli ilgisinin mekanik\u00e7i felsefenin dayatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131tlay\u0131c\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rlara kar\u015f\u0131 bir isyan g\u00f6stergesi oldu\u011fu rahatl\u0131kla s\u00f6ylenebilir:<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37130\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37130\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37130\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/14-251x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"251\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/14-251x300.jpg 251w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/14.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 251px) 100vw, 251px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37130\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">K\u00fctle\u00e7ekim evrendeki her \u015feyi etkiler. Bu nedenle lokal de\u011fil evrenseldir.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cSan\u0131yorum Newton\u2019\u0131n simyaya olan ilgisini mekanik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin do\u011fa felsefesine getirdi\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131rlamalara kar\u015f\u0131 isyan\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 olarak g\u00f6rmek gerek. Hakikatin pe\u015finde ko\u015fmak Newton\u2019\u0131n hayat\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6z\u00fcyse, ilk a\u015fk\u0131yla sonsuza kadar tatmin olmas\u0131n\u0131 beklemenin bir anlam\u0131 yok. Mekanik felsefe arzusuna belki de \u00e7ok kolay boyun e\u011fmi\u015fti. Tatmin olmam\u0131\u015f bir halde ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f, simyada ve onunla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 felsefelerde kendini asla b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle teslim etmeyecek gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen sonsuz zenginlikte yeni bir sevgili bulmu\u015ftu. \u00d6tekiler insan\u0131 usand\u0131r\u0131rken bu yeni sevgili hep daha fazlas\u0131n\u0131 istetiyordu. Newton otuz y\u0131l boyunca ona ciddi bi\u00e7imde kur yapt\u0131.\u201d (Westsfall, 2018: 313)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton ve Kitab-\u0131 Mukaddes<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton\u2019\u0131n dinsel inan\u00e7lar\u0131 H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n resmi inan\u00e7lar\u0131ndan farkl\u0131yd\u0131. Newton gizli bir heretikti. T\u00fcm hayat\u0131 boyunca \u0130sa ve H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k hakk\u0131ndaki ger\u00e7ek fikirlerini gizlemeyi ba\u015fard\u0131. Newton \u00f6l\u00fcm d\u00f6\u015fe\u011findeyken iki \u015fahit huzurunda Kilise\u2019nin yapaca\u011f\u0131 dini t\u00f6reni istemedi\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n simya gibi \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 alanlar ya do\u011frudan ya da dolayl\u0131 olarak din ile ilgiliydi. Newton\u2019\u0131n \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 konulardan biri de <em>Kitab-\u0131 Mukaddes<\/em>\u2019in do\u011fru yorumuydu. Asl\u0131nda Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>Kitab-\u0131 Mukaddes<\/em>\u2019i yorumlamaktaki amac\u0131yla simya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n amac\u0131 ayn\u0131yd\u0131. E\u011fer do\u011fru yorumlan\u0131rsa kutsal metinlerin tarihsel verilerle olan paralelli\u011fini g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n evrendeki eylemi kan\u0131tlanabilirdi. Newton\u2019\u0131n 1670\u2019li y\u0131llardan hayat\u0131n\u0131n sonuna dek <em>Kitab-\u0131 Mukaddes<\/em>\u2019teki kehanetler \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Newton i\u00e7in simya Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n fiziksel evrende s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir eylemken, tarih de Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n toplumsal d\u00fcnyada s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir eylemdi. Bu y\u00fczden simya kadar \u00f6nemliydi. Newton\u2019\u0131n s\u00f6zleriyle:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cYorumcular\u0131n hatas\u0131, gelecek zamanlardaki olaylar hakk\u0131nda, Kutsal Kitap\u2019ta yaz\u0131lanlara bakarak kehanetlerde bulunmak olmu\u015ftur; oysa Tanr\u0131 Kutsal Kitap yazarlar\u0131n\u0131 birer peygamber olarak g\u00f6rm\u00fcyordu. Onlar\u0131n bu kehanette bulunma iste\u011fi, kendilerini ele\u015ftirilerin odak noktas\u0131 yapmakla kalmam\u0131\u015f, ayn\u0131 zamanda dinsel \u00e7evrelerin nefretini kazanmalar\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. Tanr\u0131n\u0131n amac\u0131 \u00e7ok daha ba\u015fkayd\u0131. Bu ve Eski Ahit\u2019in kehanetleri, insanlar\u0131n gelecekteki olaylar hakk\u0131nda duydu\u011fu meraklar\u0131n\u0131 gidermeleri i\u00e7in de\u011fil; kehanetlerin ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi olaydan sonra, k\u00e2hinlerden \u00e7ok Tanr\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fcnya g\u00f6z\u00fcnde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir varl\u0131k olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 i\u00e7in vard\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00e7a\u011flar \u00f6nce olaca\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenen bir olay\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi, evrenin ve d\u00fcnyan\u0131n tanr\u0131sal bir g\u00fc\u00e7 taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netildi\u011fini kan\u0131tlayacakt\u0131r.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 50)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, ger\u00e7ek dinin kan\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 putperestlik yerle\u015fmeden \u00f6nceki ilk insanlar aras\u0131nda bulabilece\u011fine inanmaktayd\u0131. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re bilgeli\u011fin kayna\u011f\u0131 \u201csadece do\u011fa kitab\u0131nda\u201d de\u011fildi, ayn\u0131 zamanda \u201cbir\u00e7ok kutsal metinde\u201d bulunmaktayd\u0131. Newton\u2019\u0131n s\u00f6zleriyle \u201cBu Felsefe ilminde, Tanr\u0131 Hazreti S\u00fcleyman\u2019\u0131 d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00fcy\u00fck filozofu yapt\u0131\u201d. \u201cEski d\u00fcnya boyunca her yerde ortak bir plana g\u00f6re in\u015fa edilmi\u015f, \u2018prytanea\u2019 (kamu binalar\u0131) diye adland\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 tap\u0131naklar bulur.\u201d\u00a0 (Westfall, 2016: 161) Bu nedenle Newton\u2019\u0131n, tasar\u0131m\u0131nda do\u011fan\u0131n gizemleriyle ilgili ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 bulmak \u00fcmidiyle Hazreti S\u00fcleyman\u2019\u0131n Kud\u00fcs\u2019te yapt\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 planlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7izmesinde \u015fa\u015f\u0131lacak bir \u015fey yoktur (Christianson, 2000: 75).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37131\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37131\" style=\"width: 288px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37131\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/17-288x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"288\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/17-288x300.jpg 288w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/17.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 288px) 100vw, 288px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37131\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Edmond Halley Newton\u2019\u0131n denklemlerini kullanarak, 1682\u2019de g\u00f6r\u00fclen bir kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131n y\u00f6r\u00fcngesini hesaplad\u0131 ve 1531 ile 1607\u2019de g\u00f6zlemlenen kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zla ayn\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterdi.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>B\u00fcy\u00fck bir olas\u0131l\u0131kla Newton, kehanetler \u00fczerinde en az elli y\u0131l boyunca \u00e7al\u0131\u015fsa da bu konuya yo\u011fun olarak yaln\u0131zca birka\u00e7 y\u0131l ay\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu k\u0131sa \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma s\u00fcrecinden sonra, 4. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan bu yana s\u00fcregelmi\u015f H\u0131ristiyan gelene\u011finin yanl\u0131\u015f bir yolda oldu\u011funu ve kendisinin ilksel H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ger\u00e7e\u011fine yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131na inanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu inanc\u0131yla, yeni bulgu ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerini sonuna kadar savunmu\u015ftur. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu, Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131 belirleyecek d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ve teolojik bir konuydu.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cOnyedinci y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki Ortodoks H\u0131ristiyan \u00f6\u011fretisi teslis inanc\u0131na dayan\u0131yordu; yani Tanr\u0131n\u0131n \u2018\u00fc\u00e7te bir\u2019 ya da \u2018birde \u00fc\u00e7\u2019 oldu\u011funa inan\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Tanr\u0131y\u0131 olu\u015fturan bu \u00fc\u00e7 Ki\u015fi, (Baba Tanr\u0131, O\u011ful Tanr\u0131 ve Kutsal Ruh) birbirine e\u015fit ve e\u015f derecede sonsuz ve sonu\u00e7ta tek bir varl\u0131kt\u0131. Newton bunu kabul etmemi\u015fti.\u201d (Dobbs &amp; Jacob, 2000: 51)<\/p>\n<p>Newton 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n, kendi d\u00f6neminin insan\u0131yd\u0131. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn bir\u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr\u00fcnden farkl\u0131 olarak, o bilim ve din aras\u0131nda bir \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma g\u00f6rmemi\u015f, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n Tanr\u0131 olmadan i\u015flemeyece\u011fine inanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAsl\u0131nda Yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fczenli olarak araya girmese, kehanette \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fclen aletin bir par\u00e7as\u0131 olarak, gezegenler, kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar ve y\u0131ld\u0131zlar h\u0131zla bir araya gelir ve sonunda evren yava\u015f yava\u015f \u00e7\u00f6ker ve patlard\u0131. Daha sonraki bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n\u0131n, onun ke\u015ffetti\u011fi mekanik yasalar\u0131n\u0131n, i\u00e7inde Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n hi\u00e7 de hayati, hatta gerekli bir rol\u00fc olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir evren sisteminin \u00e7er\u00e7evesini olu\u015fturdu\u011fu yolundaki iddias\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda pek az \u015fey Isaac Newton\u2019u bu kadar k\u0131zd\u0131rabilir ve \u00fczebilirdi.\u201d (Christianson, 2000: 79)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kartezyenler Newton\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Robert Hooke ve Newton, yakla\u015f\u0131k olarak ayn\u0131 zamanda gezegenleri G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e, Ay\u2019\u0131 da Yer\u2019e do\u011fru \u00e7eken kuvvetin, ta\u015f ve elmalar\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olan \u00e7ekim kuvvetiyle ayn\u0131 oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc savunmu\u015flard\u0131r. (Newton\u2019\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131 meslekta\u015flar\u0131 ve kar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131yla bitmek bilmez kavgalarla doludur. Bunlardan biri de Robert Hooke ile giri\u015fti\u011fi bu \u00f6ncelik tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131d\u0131r.) D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerini kamuya yirmi y\u0131l daha \u00f6nce a\u00e7\u0131klayan Hooke\u2019un ve daha sonra a\u00e7\u0131klayan Newton\u2019\u0131n ortaya att\u0131\u011f\u0131 evren kavram\u0131 iki sorun ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>1) \u00c7ekim kuvveti, birbirini \u00e7eken iki cisim aras\u0131ndaki uzakl\u0131\u011fa g\u00f6re nas\u0131l de\u011fi\u015fmektedir?<\/p>\n<p>2) \u00c7ekim kuvveti, hem yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki hem de g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcndeki cisimlerin hareketlerini \u00f6ng\u00f6rmede nas\u0131l kullan\u0131labilir?<\/p>\n<p>1666 y\u0131l\u0131nda dikkatini bu sorunlar \u00fczerinde yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131ran Newton, kararl\u0131 bir dairesel y\u00f6r\u00fcngede kalabilmesi i\u00e7in, bir gezegenin G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e ve Ay\u2019\u0131n da D\u00fcnya\u2019ya hangi oranda d\u00fc\u015fmesi (d\u00f6nerek hareket etmesi) gerekti\u011fini matematiksel olarak \u00e7\u00f6zm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu matematiksel d\u00fc\u015fme oran\u0131n\u0131n gezegenin h\u0131z\u0131 ve dairesel y\u00f6r\u00fcngesinin yar\u0131\u00e7ap\u0131 ile nas\u0131l de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fini de ke\u015ffetmi\u015ftir (Kuhn, 2007: 410). Newton, bu ke\u015fiflerinden yola \u00e7\u0131karak iki \u00f6nemli matematiksel sonuca ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37132\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37132\" style=\"width: 295px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37132\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/18-295x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"295\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/18-295x300.jpg 295w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/18.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 295px) 100vw, 295px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37132\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton, Kitab-\u0131 Mukaddes\u2019i dikkatle okuduktan sonra, Hazreti S\u00fcleyman\u2019\u0131n Kud\u00fcs\u2019te yapt\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n plan\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7izebilmi\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u0130lk sonu\u00e7 Newton\u2019\u0131n, Kepler\u2019in gezegenlerin h\u0131zlar\u0131 ve y\u00f6r\u00fcnge yar\u0131\u00e7aplar\u0131 ile ilgili olan 3. yasas\u0131n\u0131 temele alarak \u201cgezegenleri G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e \u00e7eken kuvvetin, gezegenlerin G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019e olan uzakl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n karesiyle ters orant\u0131l\u0131 olarak azalaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131\u201d bulmas\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130kinci sonu\u00e7 ise, ters kare yasas\u0131n\u0131n Yer\u2019e d\u00fc\u015fen uzaktaki Ay ile, yak\u0131ndan d\u00fc\u015fen ta\u015f aras\u0131ndaki d\u00fc\u015fme oran\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ayr\u0131m\u0131 da a\u00e7\u0131klayabilece\u011fini g\u00f6stermesidir. Newton\u2019\u0131n bu bulu\u015flar\u0131yla birlikte Kepler\u2019in kendisi taraf\u0131ndan bile \u201c\u00e7ok uyumsuz\u201d olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen \u00fc\u00e7 yasas\u0131 birdenbire evren sisteminde ayd\u0131nlat\u0131c\u0131 bir konum kazan\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n ortaya koydu\u011fu evrensel \u00e7ekim yasas\u0131 ve dinami\u011fin \u00fc\u00e7 ilkesi cisimlerin serbest d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, gezegenlerin y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerini, Ay\u2019\u0131n hareketlerini, denizlerdeki gel-git olaylar\u0131n\u0131 ya da a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k gibi birbirinden olduk\u00e7a farkl\u0131 fenomenlerin a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131na giden yolu a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bununla birlikte Newtonc\u0131 fizik \u00f6zellikle \u0130ngiltere d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda s\u0131k\u0131 bir muhalefetle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newtonc\u0131 fizi\u011fe Kartezyenlerin y\u00f6neltti\u011fi ele\u015ftiriler \u00fc\u00e7 ba\u015fl\u0131kta ortaya konabilir: Yer\u2019in bi\u00e7imi, Yer ve Ay\u2019\u0131n ili\u015fkilerinin d\u00fczensizli\u011fi ve son olarak Yer ile kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n ili\u015fkisi.<\/p>\n<p>Newton \u00e7ekimin etkisiyle Yer\u2019in yar\u0131\u00e7ap\u0131n\u0131n kutuplarda ekvatora oranla daha k\u0131sa oldu\u011funu hesaplam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Huygens de Yer\u2019in bas\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 konusunda Newton\u2019la ayn\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fteydi. Newton ve Huygens\u2019in bulgular\u0131 g\u00f6kbilimci Jean Richer\u2019in (1630-1696) g\u00f6zlemleriyle uyumlu olsa da iki Kartezyen g\u00f6kbilimci, Dominique Cassini (1625-1712) ve o\u011flu Jacques Cassini (1677-1756) taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerle taban tabana \u00e7eli\u015fiyordu. Bu g\u00f6kbilimcilere g\u00f6re Yer bir portakal\u0131 de\u011fil, tam tersine, Yer\u2019in yar\u0131\u00e7ap\u0131n\u0131n kutuplarda daha uzun olmas\u0131 nedeniyle bir limonu and\u0131r\u0131yordu. \u00dcstelik \u00e7e\u015fitli kereler yap\u0131lan \u00f6zenli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmler onlar\u0131n bulgular\u0131n\u0131 do\u011fruluyordu.<\/p>\n<p>Newtonc\u0131larla Kartezyenler aras\u0131nda 30 y\u0131l s\u00fcren bu tart\u0131\u015fmaya teorik \u00f6neminin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra co\u011frafyay\u0131 ve denizcili\u011fi ilgilendiren pratik \u00f6neminden dolay\u0131 XV. Louis el koymu\u015f ve Bilim Akademisi\u2019nden bu soruna bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm getirmesini istemi\u015ftir. Sorun hem ekvatorda hem de kutuplarda yap\u0131lan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerle Newton\u2019\u0131n lehine 1744 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n<p>Newtonc\u0131 fizi\u011fe y\u00f6nelik ikinci ele\u015ftiri Ay\u2019\u0131n d\u00fczensiz hareketleriyle ilgiliydi. Bernoulli gibi Kartezyen g\u00f6kbilimciler Ay y\u00f6r\u00fcngesindeki d\u00fczensizlikleri ether i\u00e7indeki girdaplarla a\u00e7\u0131klarken Newtonc\u0131lar G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019ten kaynaklanan etkileri hesapl\u0131yorlard\u0131. D\u2019Alembert ve Clairaut <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n ilk bask\u0131s\u0131ndan 60 y\u0131l sonra, 1745 y\u0131l\u0131nda Ay\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6r\u00fcngesindeki d\u00fczensizlikleri Newtonc\u0131 teori i\u00e7inde a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 ba\u015farm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37133\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37133\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37133\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/19-300x155.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"155\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37133\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simyac\u0131lar y\u00fczy\u0131llarca s\u0131radan metalleri alt\u0131na ya da g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fe \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in bir yol bulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131lar. Newton\u2019\u0131n defterinde, simyac\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131n -\u00f6zel g\u00fc\u00e7lere sahip oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131lan madde- bu \u00e7izimi bulunur.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n hareketleriyle ilgili olarak Newton ve Descartes\u2019\u0131n teorileri tam bir kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131k i\u00e7indeydi. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ether girdab\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kan\u0131t\u0131yd\u0131. G\u00f6zlemlere g\u00f6re kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar \u201cg\u00fcne\u015f girdab\u0131na\u201d kar\u015f\u0131 hareket ediyorlard\u0131 ve bu olanaks\u0131zd\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu durum ayn\u0131 zamanda etherin gezegenleri harekete ge\u00e7iremeyecek kadar d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck yo\u011funlukta oldu\u011funu g\u00f6steriyordu. Newtonc\u0131lar ise kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n hareketlerini kendi teorileri \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde a\u00e7\u0131klamaya giri\u015ftiler. Doyurucu bir a\u00e7\u0131klama i\u00e7in kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n gezegenler gibi eliptik y\u00f6r\u00fcngelere sahip olduklar\u0131n\u0131n ve d\u00fczenli aral\u0131klarla Yer\u2019den g\u00f6zlenebileceklerinin kan\u0131tlanmas\u0131 gerekiyordu. Bu tart\u0131\u015fma Halley ve Clairaut taraf\u0131ndan Newton teorisini do\u011frulayacak bi\u00e7imde noktalan\u0131r. Halley 1456, 1531, 1607 y\u0131llar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n ayn\u0131 y\u0131ld\u0131z oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131m\u0131ndan hareket ederek 1759 y\u0131l\u0131nda g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcnde tekrar g\u00f6r\u00fclece\u011fini hesaplar. Halley kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131n\u0131n bu tarihte g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcnde belirmesi Newtonc\u0131 teorinin \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ilan eder (\u00dc\u00e7 b\u00fcy\u00fck tart\u0131\u015fmayla ilgili daha ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bilgi i\u00e7in bkz. Vigoureux, 2008: 408-416)<\/p>\n<p>17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda matematik, mekanik, astronomi ve optik alan\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan birikimlerin -sentezlenerek- bir teoriye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesi Newton taraf\u0131ndan ba\u015far\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bundan dolay\u0131 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u201cNewton \u00e7a\u011f\u0131\u201d olarak da bilinir. Newton, s\u00f6z konusu birikimi sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f olan bilimadamlar\u0131na olan borcunu \u201c[di\u011ferlerinden] daha uza\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6rmekteysem, bu, devlerin omuzlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinde durdu\u011fumdand\u0131r\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fcyle dile getirmi\u015ftir (Burtt, 1980: 207).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6ntemi<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, felsefi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn ilk kural\u0131 basitlik ilkesidir. Newton\u2019\u0131n tan\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 basitlik ilkesi daha \u00f6nce Galileo\u2019nun kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilkenin biraz de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f \u015feklidir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cDo\u011fal \u015feylerin g\u00f6r\u00fcng\u00fclerini a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in hem do\u011fru hem de yeterli olanlardan ba\u015fka hi\u00e7bir nedeni kabul etmeyece\u011fiz. Bu ama\u00e7la felsefeciler Do\u011fan\u0131n hi\u00e7bir \u015feyi bo\u015funa yapmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve daha az\u0131n i\u015fe yarayaca\u011f\u0131 zaman daha \u00e7o\u011fun bo\u015fa oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylerler; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Do\u011fa basitlikten ho\u015flan\u0131r ve gereksiz nedenlerin g\u00f6steri\u015fine \u00f6yk\u00fcnmez.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 384)<\/p>\n<p>Fakat Newton\u2019\u0131n bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6ntemden s\u00f6z etmek gerekirse, bu y\u00f6ntemin ad\u0131 matematiktir. Nitekim Newton\u2019\u0131n eserinin ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da (Do\u011fal Felsefenin Matematiksel \u0130lkeleri) do\u011fa felsefesinde bir y\u00f6ntem olarak matemati\u011fin temel \u00f6nemine i\u015faret eder. Newton <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fcnde \u015f\u00f6yle yazar:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cBu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 felsefenin matematiksel ilkeleri olarak \u00f6neriyorum, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc felsefenin b\u00fct\u00fcn a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fundan olu\u015fuyor g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr: Hareket fenomenlerinden do\u011fan\u0131n kuvvetlerini ara\u015ft\u0131rmak ve sonra bu kuvvetlerden \u00e7\u0131karak ba\u015fka fenomenleri tan\u0131tlamak. Birinci ve ikinci kitaplardaki genel \u00f6nermeler bu amaca y\u00f6neliktir. \u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc kitapta Evren Sisteminin a\u00e7\u0131mlamas\u0131nda bunun bir \u00f6rne\u011fini veriyorum; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00f6nceki kitaplarda matematiksel olarak tan\u0131tlanm\u0131\u015f \u00f6nermeler yoluyla \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcde g\u00f6k fenomenlerinden cisimlerin g\u00fcne\u015fe ve \u00e7e\u015fitli gezegenlere y\u00f6nelmelerini sa\u011flayan yer\u00e7ekimi kuvvetlerini t\u00fcretiyorum. Sonra bu kuvvetlerden, yine matematiksel olan ba\u015fka \u00f6nermeler yoluyla, gezegenlerin, kuyrukluy\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n, ay\u0131n ve denizin hareketlerini \u00e7\u0131kars\u0131yorum. Do\u011fa fenomenlerinin geri kalan\u0131n\u0131 mekanik ilkelerden ayn\u0131 t\u00fcrden ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctme yoluyla t\u00fcretebilmemizi dilerdim, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00e7e\u015fitli nedenlerle t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn de belli kuvvetlere ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 olabilecekleri ku\u015fkusuna g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fcm &#8211; kuvvetler ki onlar yoluyla cisimlerin par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131, \u015fimdiye dek bilinmeyen kimi nedenlerle, ya kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 olarak birbirlerine do\u011fru itilir ve d\u00fczenli fig\u00fcrlerde birbirlerine tutunur, ya da birbirlerinden geri itilir ve uzakla\u015f\u0131rlar. Bu kuvvetler bilinmeyince, felsefeciler \u015fimdiye dek Do\u011fa ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131nda bo\u015f giri\u015fimlerde bulunmu\u015flard\u0131r; ama umar\u0131m burada ortaya koyulan ilkeler ya bu felsefe y\u00f6ntemine ya da daha do\u011fru bir ba\u015fkas\u0131na belli bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrecektir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: xv\u00fci)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37134\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37134\" style=\"width: 227px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37134\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/20-227x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/20-227x300.png 227w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/20.png 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 227px) 100vw, 227px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37134\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">G\u00f6kbilimci Edmond Halley, hem Principia\u2019n\u0131n bas\u0131m masraflar\u0131n\u0131 \u00fcstlenmi\u015f hem de edit\u00f6r olarak Newton\u2019a yard\u0131m etmi\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Yukar\u0131daki al\u0131nt\u0131dan anla\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi gibi Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, do\u011fa felsefesinde matematik merkezi bir rol oynamaktad\u0131r ve ayr\u0131ca b\u00fct\u00fcn fiziksel olaylar\u0131n \u201cmatematiksel mekanik\u201d arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 ihtimali ya da umudu vard\u0131r. Newton i\u00e7in bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma s\u00fcreci birbirini takip eden iki a\u015famadan olu\u015fmaktad\u0131r: 1) Belirli hareketlerden kuvvetlerin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131m\u0131\/bilinmesi 2) Di\u011fer hareketlerin de bilinen bu kuvvetlere ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011funun g\u00f6sterilmesi. G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi Newton\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6nteminin birinci a\u015famas\u0131 t\u00fcmevar\u0131ma ikinci a\u015famas\u0131 ise t\u00fcmdengelime dayal\u0131d\u0131r. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle bilimsel y\u00f6ntem analiz ve sentez \u00f6\u011felerini kapsamaktad\u0131r (Copleston 1991: 209). Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re matematik, bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma s\u00fcrecinde zihne yard\u0131mc\u0131 olur. <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fcnde Newton, matemati\u011fi fiziksel fenomenleri a\u00e7\u0131klayan \u201cfaydal\u0131 bir ara\u00e7\u201d olarak ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade etmi\u015ftir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAntikler (Pappus\u2019un bizlere s\u00f6yledi\u011fi gibi) do\u011fal \u015feyleri ara\u015ft\u0131rmada en b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nemi mekanik bilimine verdikleri i\u00e7in ve modernler t\u00f6zsel formlar\u0131 ve ok\u00fclt\/gizli nitelikleri yads\u0131yarak do\u011fa fenomenlerini matemati\u011fin yasalar\u0131 alt\u0131na almaya \u00e7abalad\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in, bu incelemede matemati\u011fi felsefe ile ilgili oldu\u011fu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde geli\u015ftirdim.\u201d (Newton, 1846: xv\u00fc)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n \u201chem m\u00fckemmel bir matematik\u00e7i hem de iyi bir empirist\u201d oldu\u011fu kabul edilir. Burtt\u2019\u00fcn i\u015faret etti\u011fi gibi Newton i\u00e7in deney, \u201cfiziksel olaylar\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 s\u00fcrecinde her a\u015famaya e\u015flik etmesi gereken bir rehber ve do\u011frulay\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r.\u201d Galileo ve Descartes\u2019tan farkl\u0131 olarak Newton, \u201cdo\u011fan\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle matematiksel oldu\u011fu\u201dnu kesin bir \u015fekilde ileri s\u00fcrmemi\u015ftir (Burtt, 1980: 212). \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Newton, \u201cmatematiksel ger\u00e7eklerle fiziksel ger\u00e7ekler aras\u0131nda ay\u0131rt edici bir fark\u201d oldu\u011funa inanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton, <em>Universal Arithmetic<\/em> (Evrensel Aritmetik) adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131nda Galileo ve Descartes\u2019tan farkl\u0131 olarak \u201cbaz\u0131 problemlerin hi\u00e7bir suretle matematiksel dile tam olarak \u00e7evrilemeyece\u011fini\u201d ima etmi\u015ftir. Bu nedenle Newton i\u00e7in matemati\u011fin, yaln\u0131zca duyusal deneyimle ortaya konan sorunlar\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00e7in bir y\u00f6ntem oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek yanl\u0131\u015f olmayacakt\u0131r. Ancak yine de Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re \u201cmatematik, daima deney \u00fczerine modellendirilmelidir\u201d. (Burtt, 1980: 213)<\/p>\n<p>Newton i\u00e7in \u201cher \u00f6nemli bilimsel ad\u0131m\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda ve sonunda dikkatli deneme olmal\u0131d\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc anlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z her zaman duyusal olgulard\u0131r; ancak anlama kesin oldu\u011fu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, matematiksel dilde ifade edilmelidir.\u201d (Burtt, 1980: 222) Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re matemati\u011fin \u201cideal kesinli\u011fi\u201d deneyin ise \u201ctutarl\u0131 empirik g\u00f6ndermesi\u201d vard\u0131r. Matematiksel ve deneysel metotlar\u0131n birbirini tamamlad\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve ayr\u0131lmaz oldu\u011funa inanan Newton i\u00e7in bilim, do\u011fal d\u00fcnya s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinin kesin matematiksel form\u00fclasyonudur (Burtt, 1980: 226). Burtt\u2019e g\u00f6re \u201cbilimin aral\u0131ks\u0131z geli\u015fimi\u201d i\u00e7inde Newton,<\/p>\n<p>\u201ct\u00fcmdengelimli ve matematiksel oldu\u011fu kadar empirik ve deneysel olan iki \u00f6nemli ve verimli bilimsel hareketin ortak varisidir. Newton, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo ve Descartes\u2019\u0131n varisi oldu\u011fu ger\u00e7e\u011fi kadar Bacon, Gilbert, Harvey ve Boyle\u2019un takip\u00e7isiydi; ve e\u011fer y\u00f6ntemini iki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe b\u00f6lmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olsayd\u0131, Newton\u2019\u0131n esas \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn matematiksel olmaktan \u00e7ok empirik oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenebilirdi.\u201d (Burtt, 1980: 213-214)<\/p>\n<p>G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi Newton\u2019da empirik olan\u0131n merkezi bir \u00f6nemi vard\u0131r. Evrensel mekani\u011fin bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan geometri mekani\u011fin di\u011fer dallar\u0131yla birlikte cisimlerin hareketlerinin tekil bir bilimini olu\u015fturur. Bu bilim \u201corijinal olarak pratik ihtiya\u00e7lara cevap olarak\u201d (Burtt, 1980: 215) geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Sonu\u00e7 olarak Newton\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6ntemi \u201chipotetik-ded\u00fcktif y\u00f6ntem\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131labilir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewton \u00f6zellikle <em>Principia<\/em> ile yaln\u0131zca yepyeni bir evren tablosu \u00e7izmekle kalmam\u0131\u015f, felsefede ve bilimde \u00f6nemli bir yeri olan yeni bir y\u00f6ntem (hipotetik-ded\u00fcktif y\u00f6ntem) olu\u015fturmu\u015f, yeni felsefi ve bilimsel problemlerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. S\u00f6z konusu hipotetik-ded\u00fcktif y\u00f6ntem, ind\u00fcksiyonu da kapsamas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan Descartes\u2019\u0131n ded\u00fcktif y\u00f6ntemine kar\u015f\u0131 bir \u00f6zelliktedir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Newton, yaln\u0131zca bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan de\u011fil, y\u00f6ntem ile ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri bak\u0131m\u0131ndan da bu \u00e7a\u011f\u0131 [yani 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131] etkileyen bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrd\u00fcr.\u201d (Ural, 1994c: 46)<\/p>\n<p>Fark edilece\u011fi gibi Newton\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6ntemi \u201c\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcme ve matemati\u011fe dayal\u0131 Galileo metodunun\u201d benzeridir. Bu nedenle Newton, fizi\u011fi Descartes\u2019tan (ya da rasyonalistlerden) \u00e7ok daha ileri g\u00f6t\u00fcrebilmi\u015ftir. Newton\u2019\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131ndaki di\u011fer bir etken de metafiziksel ve fiziksel teorilerinin \u201c\u00e7ok say\u0131da yarat\u0131c\u0131 hipotez\u201d (Trusted, 1994: 93) i\u00e7ermesidir.<\/p>\n<p>Yukar\u0131da ifade edildi\u011fi gibi Newton \u201cmatematiksel do\u011fa felsefesinin\u201d ya da fizi\u011finin temellerini kurmak i\u00e7in metafizik sorunlarla da ilgilenmi\u015ftir. Newton, fizik biliminde ivme ve kuvvet kavramlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda kurdu\u011fu ili\u015fkinin metafizik d\u00fczeyde baz\u0131 sorunlar i\u00e7erdi\u011fini fark eder ve profesyonel bir filozof gibi s\u00f6z konusu sorunlar\u0131 ele al\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin Newton fizi\u011fine g\u00f6re kuvvet ivme yarat\u0131r ve bu nedenle kuvvet ivme ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclmelidir. \u0130vme ise birim zamandaki hareket h\u0131z\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fidir. Hareket h\u0131z\u0131ndaki de\u011fi\u015fiklikleri \u00f6l\u00e7mek i\u00e7in bir cismin hareket h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 bulmam\u0131z, bunun i\u00e7in de belli bir zaman boyunca bir cismin kat etti\u011fi yolu \u00f6l\u00e7memiz gerekir. \u0130vme ve kuvvetin bulunmas\u0131, hareket eden bir cismin mek\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131n\/uzay\u0131n\u0131n ve zaman\u0131n\u0131n belirlenmesini gerektirmektedir. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle s\u00f6z konusu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmler ivme ve kuvvetin bulunmas\u0131 i\u00e7in gerekli hesaplamalar\u0131n temelini olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r. (Trusted, 1994: 97)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mutlak uzay <em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>T\u00fcm y\u00f6nlere do\u011fru s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z bir \u015fekilde yay\u0131lan homojen bir uzay varsay\u0131m\u0131, tek ba\u015f\u0131na ele al\u0131nan bir nesnenin uzaydaki konumunun belirlenmesine yard\u0131mc\u0131 olamaz. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bir cismin uzaydaki konumu (pozisyonu) ba\u015fka bir nesneye ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak belirlenir. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde konum de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi kavram\u0131 da tek bir nesne i\u00e7in anlam ta\u015f\u0131maz; di\u011fer nesnelerle ili\u015fkisi i\u00e7inde bir anlam\u0131 vard\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin uzayda iki cismin g\u00f6reli konumlar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmesi halinde iki cisimden hangisinin hareket etti\u011fi sorununun cevab\u0131 t\u00fcm\u00fcyle referans noktas\u0131 olarak hangi cismin al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 olacakt\u0131r. Referans noktas\u0131 olarak e\u011fer iki cismi birle\u015ftiren do\u011frusal \u00e7izginin orta noktas\u0131 kabul edilirse her iki cisim de bu noktaya g\u00f6re konumlar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirebilir. Trusted\u2019\u0131n (1994: 98) deyi\u015fiyle \u201cbu gibi hareketlere ili\u015fkin sorular fizi\u011fe metodolojik problemler \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r\u201d ve \u201cbu problemleri cevapland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in referans noktalar\u0131na ili\u015fkin metafizik varsay\u0131mlarda\u201d bulunulmas\u0131 gerekir.<\/p>\n<p>G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi, uzaydaki bir nesnenin konumu di\u011fer bir nesne referans al\u0131narak belirlenebilmektedir. Bu durumda yaln\u0131zca g\u00f6reli konum ya da g\u00f6reli hareket \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f olacakt\u0131r. Ama e\u011fer uzay\u0131n kendisi (ilke olarak) referans noktas\u0131 olarak se\u00e7ilebilirse mutlak bir referans noktas\u0131 elde edilmi\u015f olacakt\u0131r. Uzay\u0131n kendisinin mutlak bir referans noktas\u0131 olarak al\u0131nabilmesi halinde fizik de mutlak konum ve mutlak hareket gibi kavramlara dayand\u0131r\u0131labilecektir. Leibniz, bir nesnenin konumunun ba\u015fka bir nesneye g\u00f6nderme yapmadan tespit edilemeyece\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc benimsemi\u015f oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in \u201cnihai bir ger\u00e7eklik olarak uzay kavram\u0131n\u0131\u201d (Trusted, 1994: 98) reddetmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n<p>Zaman\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclmesinde de benzer bir sorun vard\u0131r. Nesnelerin de\u011fi\u015fmesinden (nesnelerin g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcmleri, konumlar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fmektedir) dolay\u0131 fark\u0131na varabildi\u011fimiz zaman kavram\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemi Antik\u00e7a\u011fdan beri kabul edilegelmi\u015ftir. Hi\u00e7bir nesnenin de\u011fi\u015fimi g\u00f6zlemlenmeseydi, zaman hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclemezdi. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle zaman, benzer olaylar\u0131n artarda geli\u015fine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilmektedir. Asl\u0131nda g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar zaman\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7mek i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirilen hi\u00e7bir alet (atom saatleri dahil) m\u00fckemmel olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bir \u00f6ncekine g\u00f6re daha d\u00fczenli olan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm sistemi ge\u00e7erli kabul edilmi\u015ftir. Newton fizi\u011finin (kuvvet ile ivme kavram\u0131 aras\u0131nda kurulan ili\u015fkinin) yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 metafizik sorunlardan birisi de \u201cm\u00fckemmel olmayan bir \u015fekilde \u00f6l\u00e7ebilse de, kendisi m\u00fckemmel olarak d\u00fczenli bir ak\u0131\u015f i\u00e7inde olan, hareketten ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z mutlak bir zaman var m\u0131d\u0131r?\u201d (Trusted, 1994: 99) sorunudur.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37135\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37135\" style=\"width: 259px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37135\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/21-259x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"259\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/21-259x300.jpg 259w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/21.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 259px) 100vw, 259px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37135\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019\u0131n yak\u0131n arkada\u015f\u0131 filozof John Locke.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Newton, ortak duyuya dayal\u0131 uzay, zaman, hareket, yer kavramlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 mutlak, ger\u00e7ek ya da matematiksel -Newton i\u00e7in bu nitelemeler e\u015fde\u011ferdir- zaman, uzay, hareket ve yer kavram\u0131ndan s\u00f6z etmi\u015ftir (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 125). Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle Newton, uzayda mutlak konumlar\u0131n oldu\u011funu ve evrende d\u00fczenli bir zaman ak\u0131\u015f\u0131 oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. \u015eimdi s\u0131ras\u0131yla Newton\u2019\u0131n mutlak uzay ve mutlak zaman konusundaki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini ele alal\u0131m. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle,<\/p>\n<p>\u201cmutlak uzay [spatium absolutum], kendi do\u011fas\u0131nda, d\u0131\u015fsal herhangi bir \u015fey ile ili\u015fki olmaks\u0131z\u0131n, her zaman benzer ve hareketsiz kal\u0131r.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 77)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, uzay\u0131n herhangi bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 -uzaydaki herhangi bir cisimden farkl\u0131 olarak- mutlak konumlar\u0131n belirleyicisi olarak ele al\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cZaman par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fczeninin de\u011fi\u015fmez olmas\u0131 gibi, uzay par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fczeni de de\u011fi\u015fmezdir. Bu par\u00e7alar\u0131n yerlerinden d\u0131\u015far\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 varsayarsak, (e\u011fer anlat\u0131ma izin verilebilirse) kendilerinin d\u0131\u015f\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olacaklard\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc zamanlar ve uzaylar, bir bak\u0131ma, t\u00fcm ba\u015fka \u015feylerin oldu\u011fu gibi kendilerinin de yerlerindedirler. T\u00fcm \u015feyler ard\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k d\u00fczeni a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan zamanda yerle\u015fmi\u015ftir ve konum d\u00fczeni a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan uzayda yerleri olmalar\u0131 \u00f6zlerinden ya da do\u011falar\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fcr ve \u015feylerin birincil yerlerinden oynat\u0131labilir olmas\u0131 sa\u00e7mad\u0131r. Bunlar \u00f6yleyse mutlak yerlerdir ve o yerlerden \u00f6telenmeler biricik mutlak hareketlerdir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 79)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n mutlak uzay kavram\u0131, Descartes\u2019\u0131n -cisim ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirildi\u011fi i\u00e7in- cisimle birlikte hareket eden uzay kavram\u0131ndan farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re Descartes\u2019\u0131n uzay kavram\u0131 g\u00f6reli uzay olarak adland\u0131r\u0131labilir. G\u00f6reli uzay hem Aristoteles\u00e7iler taraf\u0131ndan hem de Kartezyenler taraf\u0131ndan g\u00f6reli uzay\u0131n alt\u0131nda yatan mutlak uzay ile kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle, \u201cg\u00f6reli uzay mutlak uzaylar\u0131n hareket edebilir bir boyutu ya da \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr ki, duyular\u0131m\u0131z onu cisimler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan konumu yoluyla\u201d tespit eder. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, mutlak uzay ve g\u00f6reli uzay aras\u0131nda yap\u0131lan ayr\u0131m gibi cisimlerin uzayda kaplad\u0131klar\u0131 mutlak ve g\u00f6reli uzaylar aras\u0131nda da bir ayr\u0131m yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekir. B\u00f6ylece Newton, Henry More\u2019un uzay kavram\u0131n\u0131 ve bu kavrama dayal\u0131 olarak hem geleneksel anlay\u0131\u015fa hem de Kartezyen anlay\u0131\u015fa y\u00f6neltilen ele\u015ftirileri geli\u015ftirmi\u015ftir (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 126).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mutlak ve g\u00f6reli devinim<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, mutlak uzay ve g\u00f6reli uzay aras\u0131nda yap\u0131lacak bir ayr\u0131m, zorunlu olarak mutlak ve g\u00f6reli hareketler aras\u0131ndaki ayr\u0131ma, mutlak ve g\u00f6reli hareketler aras\u0131ndaki ayr\u0131m da mutlak uzay ve zamana i\u015faret edecektir. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle,<\/p>\n<p>\u201cmutlak hareket [motus absolutus] bir cismin bir mutlak yerden bir ba\u015fkas\u0131na \u00f6telenmesidir ve g\u00f6reli hareket, bir g\u00f6reli yerden bir ba\u015fkas\u0131na \u00f6telenmesi\u201ddir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 78)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, mutlak hareket mutlak uzay a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan harekettir ve g\u00f6reli hareket mutlak harekete i\u015faret eder (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 128). Mutlak uzay duyumlar\u0131m\u0131z taraf\u0131ndan eri\u015filebilir olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan mutlak hareketi belirlemek \u00e7ok zor, hatta olanaks\u0131zd\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc uzaydaki nesneleri mutlak uzaya ba\u011fl\u0131 mutlak hareketleri bak\u0131m\u0131ndan de\u011fil, di\u011fer nesnelerle ili\u015fkisi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan, yani g\u00f6reli hareketleri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan alg\u0131lar\u0131z (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 129). Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cTikel cisimlerin ger\u00e7ek hareketlerini g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrdeki hareketlerinden saptamak ve etkili olarak ay\u0131rt etmek asl\u0131nda \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7 bir sorundur; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc i\u00e7inde bu hareketlerin yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 devinmez uzay\u0131n par\u00e7alar\u0131 hi\u00e7bir bi\u00e7imde duyular\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n g\u00f6zlemi alt\u0131na girmezler. Yine de durum b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle umutsuz de\u011fildir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bize yol g\u00f6sterecek kimi ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctmelerimiz vard\u0131r &#8211; bir yandan ger\u00e7ek hareketlerin ayr\u0131mlar\u0131 olan g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrdeki hareketlerden ve \u00f6te yandan ger\u00e7ek hareketlerin nedenleri ve etkileri olan kuvvetlerden. \u00d6rne\u011fin, e\u011fer onlar\u0131 birbirine ba\u011flayan bir kordon arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla birbirinden belirli bir uzakl\u0131kta tutulan iki k\u00fcre ortak a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k merkezlerinin \u00e7evresinde d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclecek olsayd\u0131, kordonun gerginli\u011finden k\u00fcrelerin hareketlerinin ekseninden ka\u00e7ma \u00e7abalar\u0131n\u0131 saptayabilir ve buradan dairesel hareketlerinin niceli\u011fini hesaplayabilirdik.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 82)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37136\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37136\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37136\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/23-300x221.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"221\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/23.jpg 300w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/23-80x60.jpg 80w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/23-100x75.jpg 100w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37136\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Greenwich\u2019teki Kraliyet G\u00f6zlemevi\u2019ndeki Sekizgen Oda.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Bu al\u0131nt\u0131dan anla\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi gibi Newton, sayesinde mutlak hareketlerin (ve b\u00f6ylece mutlak uzay ve zaman\u0131n) kan\u0131tlanabilece\u011fi ve \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilece\u011fi iki yol \u00f6nermi\u015ftir. Bunun i\u00e7in k\u0131smen ger\u00e7ek hareketlerden farkl\u0131 olan g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr hareketlerden yola \u00e7\u0131k\u0131labilece\u011fi gibi, k\u0131smen ger\u00e7ek hareketlerin nedenleri ve etkileri olan kuvvetlerden de yola \u00e7\u0131k\u0131labilir. Burtt\u2019\u00fcn dikkatimizi \u00e7ekti\u011fi gibi, Newton\u2019\u0131n mutlak hareket doktrini, g\u00f6reli hareketin kavranmas\u0131na engel olacak bir \u00f6zellik ta\u015f\u0131mamaktad\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n bu konudaki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini cisimler uzaysal ili\u015fkilerini \u015f\u00f6yle ya da b\u00f6yle kesin olarak de\u011fi\u015ftirirler ve referans sistemimiz keyfi\/g\u00f6reli de\u011fildir bi\u00e7iminde \u00f6zetlemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr (Burtt, 1980: 255). Bununla birlikte Newton, g\u00f6reli konum ve g\u00f6reli hareket \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmleri ile yetinmemiz gerekti\u011fini kabul etmi\u015ftir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAma uzay\u0131n par\u00e7alar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclemeyecekleri ya da duyular\u0131m\u0131z yoluyla birbirlerinden ay\u0131rt edilemeyecekleri i\u00e7in, bu y\u00fczden onlar\u0131n yerine duyulur \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerini [sensible measures] kullan\u0131r\u0131z. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u015feylerin hareketsiz olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen herhangi bir cisme g\u00f6re konumlar\u0131ndan ve uzakl\u0131klar\u0131ndan t\u00fcm yerleri tan\u0131mlar\u0131z ve sonra b\u00f6yle yerler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan, cisimleri bu yerlerden kimilerinden ba\u015fkalar\u0131na aktar\u0131l\u0131yor olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnerek t\u00fcm hareketleri hesaplar\u0131z. Ve b\u00f6ylece, mutlak yerler ve hareketler yerine g\u00f6reli olanlar\u0131 kullan\u0131r\u0131z.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 79)<\/p>\n<p>Ger\u00e7ek ve g\u00f6reli hareketler cisimler \u00fczerinde etkide bulunan kuvvetler yoluyla ay\u0131rt edilebilirler. Bir cisim mutlak anlamda hareket ediyorsa bir kuvvetin etkisi s\u00f6z konusudur. Di\u011fer bir ifadeyle mutlak hareketin g\u00f6reli hareketten fark\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koyacak olan hareket t\u00fcr\u00fcnde etki yaratan bir kuvvetin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 tespit edilebilmelidir (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 129). Bu olana\u011f\u0131 sunan hareket t\u00fcr\u00fc do\u011frusal hareket de\u011fil, dairesel ya da \u00e7ember hareketidir. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cMutlak hareketi g\u00f6reli hareketten ay\u0131rt eden etkiler dairesel hareketin ekseninden geri ka\u00e7ma kuvvetleridir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc salt g\u00f6reli bir dairesel harekette b\u00f6yle hi\u00e7bir kuvvet yoktur, ama ger\u00e7ek ve mutlak bir dairesel harekette bunlar hareketin niceli\u011fine g\u00f6re daha b\u00fcy\u00fck ya da daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcrler.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 80)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, dairesel hareket ya da \u00e7ember hareketi her zaman merkezka\u00e7 kuvveti yarataca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in mutlak harekettir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc di\u011fer cisimlerin konumunu dikkate almadan, d\u00f6nmekte olan bir cisimdeki merkezka\u00e7 kuvvetinin tespit edilmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Bir hareketteki merkezka\u00e7 kuvvetinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6z konusu hareketin dairesel hareket oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterecektir ve hareketin h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilmesine olanak sa\u011flayacakt\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n dairesel mutlak hareket anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve bu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n sonu\u00e7lar\u0131, olgular\u0131 dikkate almayan Kartezyen g\u00f6reli hareket kavram\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 ve ge\u00e7ersizli\u011fini ortaya koymu\u015ftur (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 130).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37137\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37137\" style=\"width: 234px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37137\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/22-234x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"234\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/22-234x300.jpg 234w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/22.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 234px) 100vw, 234px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37137\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Kraliyet Cemiyeti\u2019nin ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na se\u00e7ildi\u011fi 1703 y\u0131l\u0131nda Newton.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Koyr\u00e9\u2019ye g\u00f6re Newton\u2019\u0131n do\u011frusal harekete kar\u015f\u0131t olarak dairesel hareketin mutlak \u00f6zelli\u011fini ke\u015ffetmesi, mutlak uzay g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc do\u011frulam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. S\u00f6z konusu ke\u015fif, Newton\u2019\u0131n uzay kavram\u0131n\u0131n metafizik bir i\u015flevi yerine getirdi\u011fi kadar empirik bilgiye de a\u00e7\u0131k oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle Newton\u2019\u0131n uzay kavram\u0131, bilimin temel kavram\u0131 olarak kabul edilebilmesinin ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131 yerine getirmi\u015ftir (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 130). Bu nedenle Newton\u2019\u0131n yukar\u0131daki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri Huygens ve Leibniz\u2019le ba\u015flayan ele\u015ftirilere kar\u015f\u0131n ge\u00e7erlili\u011fini koruyabilmi\u015ftir (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 131).<\/p>\n<p>Koyr\u00e9\u2019nin i\u015faret etti\u011fi gibi, Newton\u2019\u0131n dairesel hareketle ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri, bir\u00e7ok bilimsel geli\u015fmenin sonucu olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kabilmi\u015ftir. S\u00f6z konusu bilimsel geli\u015fmeler eski evren ve dairesel hareket anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n terk edilmesi, uzay\u0131n geometrikle\u015ftirilmesi ve eylemsizlik ilkesinin temel hareket yasas\u0131 olarak kabul edilmesidir. Dairesel hareket yapmakta olan bir cisim, eylemsizlik hareketinden farkl\u0131 olarak hareket y\u00f6n\u00fc s\u00fcrekli de\u011fi\u015fen bir hareket olacakt\u0131r. Bu nedenle dairesel hareket, eylemsizlik hareketi gibi \u00fcniform bir hareket de\u011fil, s\u00fcrekli olarak ivmelenen bir harekettir. \u0130vmeli hareket ise saf \u00f6telemeye [translation: yerden yere nakil] kar\u015f\u0131t olarak mutlakt\u0131r (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 131).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mutlak zaman<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Newton \u201czaman\u201d\u0131 temel bir metafizik post\u00fcla olarak kabul etmi\u015f, mutlak zaman konusunda tart\u0131\u015fmaya girmemi\u015ftir (Trusted, 1994: 100). Newton zaman\u0131, harekete ba\u011fl\u0131 olmayan \u201ckendi ba\u015f\u0131na bir olgusall\u0131k\u201d olarak ele al\u0131r. Newton daha \u00f6nce Descartes\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 Yeni-Platoncu zaman anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 savunmu\u015f olan Henry More\u2019un yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu gibi (Henry More\u2019a g\u00f6re zaman hareketten ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak Tanr\u0131\u2019da ya da idealar\u0131n ard\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda varolan bir olgusal\u0131kt\u0131r) Aristoteles\u00e7i zaman anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 Yeni-Platoncu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri savunmu\u015ftur. Zaman Descartes\u2019\u0131n \u00f6ne s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi s\u00fcbjektif bir \u015fey de\u011fildir. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle,<\/p>\n<p>\u201cMutlak, ger\u00e7ek ve matematiksel zaman [tempus absolutum, verum, &amp; mathematicum], kendili\u011finden ve kendi do\u011fas\u0131ndan, d\u0131\u015fsal herhangi bir \u015fey ile ili\u015fki olmaks\u0131z\u0131n e\u015fit olarak akar [aequabiliter fluit].\u201d (Newton, 1846: 77)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, ba\u015fka bir adla s\u00fcre olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan mutlak zaman ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilen zaman ayr\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. \u00d6l\u00e7\u00fclebilir zaman\u0131 ise \u201cg\u00f6reli zaman\u201d, \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrdeki zaman\u201d ya da \u201cortak zaman\u201d olarak adland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c\u2026g\u00f6reli, g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrde ve s\u0131radan zaman s\u00fcrenin hareket arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla duyulur ve d\u0131\u015fsal (ister do\u011fru ister bi\u00e7imde\u015f olmayan olsun) bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr ki, genellikle ger\u00e7ek zaman\u0131n yerine kullan\u0131l\u0131r; \u00f6rne\u011fin bir saat, bir g\u00fcn, bir ay, bir y\u0131l gibi.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 77)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re zaman\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7mekte kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u201cduyulur \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcler\u201din mutlak zaman ak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcp \u00f6l\u00e7medi\u011fini bilemeyiz:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cT\u00fcm hareketler h\u0131zland\u0131r\u0131labilir ya da yava\u015flat\u0131labilir, ama mutlak zaman\u0131n ak\u0131\u015f\u0131 herhangi bir de\u011fi\u015fime a\u00e7\u0131k de\u011fildir. Hareketler ister h\u0131zl\u0131 isterse yava\u015f olsunlar ya da isterse hi\u00e7 olmas\u0131nlar, \u015feylerin varolu\u015funun kal\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k s\u00fcresi ayn\u0131 kal\u0131r ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu s\u00fcrenin onun yaln\u0131zca duyulur \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcleri olan \u015feylerden ay\u0131rt edilmesi gerekir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 78-79)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37138\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37138\" style=\"width: 233px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37138\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/24-233x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"233\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/24-233x300.jpg 233w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/24.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 233px) 100vw, 233px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37138\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Alman filozof Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, diferansiyel ve integral hesab\u0131 Newton\u2019dan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak geli\u015ftirmi\u015fti.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Yukar\u0131da k\u0131smen de\u011findi\u011fimiz gibi Newton\u2019\u0131n zaman konusundaki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri Descartes ve Leibniz\u2019in zaman tan\u0131mlar\u0131ndan farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Descartes, zaman\u0131n hareket ile, daha do\u011frusu \u201cen d\u00fczenli\u201d hareketlerle \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclmesi gerekti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc savunmu\u015ftur. Ancak Descartes \u201cen d\u00fczenli\u201d hareketin nas\u0131l tespit edilebilece\u011fi ya da mutlak bir standard\u0131n nas\u0131l sa\u011flanaca\u011f\u0131 gibi sorunlar\u0131 cevaplamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Descartes gibi Leibniz de zaman kavram\u0131n\u0131 mutlak olarak ele almam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Trusted, 1994: 100). Leibniz\u2019e g\u00f6re uzay gibi zaman da g\u00f6relidir. Leibniz uzay ve zaman ile ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc \u201cuzay\u0131 zaman gibi yaln\u0131zca g\u00f6reli bir \u015fey olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyorum. Onu bir birarada-varolu\u015flar d\u00fczeni olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyorum, <em>zaman<\/em> da bir ard\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131klar d\u00fczenidir\u201d \u015feklinde ifade etmi\u015ftir. Leibniz, Newton ve Clarke\u2019\u0131n savunmu\u015f olduklar\u0131 mutlak uzay ve mutlak zaman g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc \u201ckimi modern \u0130ngilizlere \u00f6zg\u00fc bir put\/idol\u201d sayarak reddetmi\u015ftir (Copleston 1996: 45, 47)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, kendi d\u00f6neminde ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f ve cisimcik\/tanecik (corpuscular) felsefesini savunmu\u015f olan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerin maddenin yap\u0131s\u0131na ili\u015fkin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini payla\u015fm\u0131\u015f ve geli\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n cisimcik\/tanecik felsefesi g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki anlam\u0131yla bir atom teorisi de\u011fildir. Bu felsefede ilke olarak b\u00f6l\u00fcnmez kabul edilen cisimciklerin g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn molek\u00fcl kavram\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran bir anlam\u0131 vard\u0131. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re maddenin tanecikli bir yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n olmas\u0131 maddenin temel bir \u00f6zelli\u011fidir. Madde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ve kat\u0131 par\u00e7ac\u0131klardan olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Newton\u2019\u0131n deyi\u015fiyle,<\/p>\n<p>\u201ce\u011fer t\u00fcm cisimlerin t\u00fcm kat\u0131 par\u00e7alar\u0131 ayn\u0131 yo\u011funlukta iseler ve g\u00f6zenekler olmaks\u0131z\u0131n seyreltilemiyorlarsa, o zaman bir bo\u015f uzay ya da vakum kabul edilmelidir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 396)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n maddeye y\u00fckledi\u011fi yer-kaplama, sertlik, i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezlik, hareketlilik gibi temel \u00f6zellikler Henry More ve d\u00f6nemin di\u011fer atomcu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerin maddeye y\u00fckledikleri \u00f6zelliklerle ayn\u0131d\u0131r. Newton Demokritos\u2019un madde teorisini benimseyerek Aristoteles\u00e7i do\u011fa felsefesine alternatif bir ontolojiden yola \u00e7\u0131kar. Newton\u2019\u0131n defterine yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, \u201cilk maddenin atom olmas\u0131 gerekir ve bu madde fark edilemeyecek kadar k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olabilir\u201d. Ancak Newton, maddenin s\u00f6z konusu temel \u00f6zelliklerine eylemsizli\u011fi de ilave eder (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 133).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Birincil ve ikincil nitelikler<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Galileo ve Descartes gibi Newton da birincil nitelikler ve ikincil nitelikler ayr\u0131m\u0131 yapar. Yukar\u0131da i\u015faret edildi\u011fi gibi Newton i\u00e7in maddenin ba\u015fl\u0131ca temel ya da birincil \u00f6zelli\u011fi yer-kaplama, kat\u0131l\u0131k ve hareketliliktir. Isaac Newton\u2019\u0131n ve Robert Boyle\u2019un(1) hayranl\u0131k duydu\u011fu bilimsel ve metafiziksel g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerinden hareket eden John Locke\u2019un birincil ve ikincil nitelikler aras\u0131nda yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu ayr\u0131m, Newton\u2019\u0131n birincil nitelikler tan\u0131m\u0131na dayan\u0131r(2) (Musgrave, 2013: 149). Ancak Newton\u2019dan farkl\u0131 olarak Locke\u2019ta birincil nitelikler \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilir \u00f6zelliklerden ziyade \u201ccisimden tamamen ayr\u0131lamaz olanlar\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlan\u0131r. Bununla birlikte hem Newton\u2019a hem de Locke\u2019a g\u00f6re b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6zellikler duyusal deneyime ba\u011fl\u0131 olmadan vard\u0131r ve objektif ger\u00e7ekli\u011fe sahiptirler\u00a0 (Trusted, 1994: 94). Locke birincil nitelikleri tan\u0131mlarken \u015f\u00f6yle der:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c\u00d6ncelikle, hangi durumda olursa olsun cisimden kesinlikle ayr\u0131lmaz olan nitelikler vard\u0131r ve ne kadar de\u011fi\u015fim ve ba\u015fkala\u015f\u0131m ge\u00e7irirse ge\u00e7irsin, \u00fczerine ne kadar g\u00fc\u00e7 uygulan\u0131rsa uygulans\u0131n cisim bu niteliklerini korur&#8230; Cismin bizde kat\u0131l\u0131k, uzam, \u015fekil, hareket ya da hareketsizlik ve say\u0131n\u0131n yal\u0131n idelerini \u00fcreten bu niteliklere ben <em>k\u00f6kensel<\/em> ya da <em>birincil<\/em> <em>nitelikler<\/em> diyorum.\u201d (<em>\u0130nsan\u0131n Anlama Yetisi \u00dczerine Bir Deneme<\/em>, \u0130kinci Kitap, B\u00f6l\u00fcm VIII, madde: 9: 179-180)<\/p>\n<p>Locke ikincil nitelikleri tan\u0131mlarken ise \u015f\u00f6yle der:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cNesnelerin bizde birincil nitelikleri yard\u0131m\u0131yla \u00e7e\u015fitli d\u0131\u015f duyumlar [yani renk, ses, tat gibi duyumlar] \u00fcretmesini sa\u011flayan g\u00fc\u00e7lerine de ben <em>ikincil<\/em> <em>nitelikler<\/em> ad\u0131n\u0131 veriyorum.\u201d (<em>\u0130nsan\u0131n Anlama Yetisi \u00dczerine Bir Deneme<\/em>, \u0130kinci Kitap, B\u00f6l\u00fcm VIII, madde: 10: 180).<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n da aralar\u0131nda bulundu\u011fu \u0130ngiliz empiristler, \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fclemeyen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck tanecikleri\u201d maddenin bile\u015fenleri olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Yukar\u0131da i\u015faret edildi\u011fi gibi bu taneciklerin birincil niteliklere sahip olduklar\u0131 ve ayn\u0131 zamanda cisimlerin ikincil niteliklerinden sorumlu olduklar\u0131 kabul edilmi\u015ftir. Newton k\u00fctleyi \u201cbir cisimdeki madde ya da tanecik miktar\u0131\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Newton fizi\u011finde k\u00fctle cisimlerin birincil bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak ele al\u0131n\u0131r. (Trusted, 1994: 94)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37139\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37139\" style=\"width: 240px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37139\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/25-240x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/25-240x300.jpg 240w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/25.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37139\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden iki y\u0131l \u00f6nce, 1725\u2019te 82 ya\u015f\u0131ndayken.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir cismin daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir cisme g\u00f6re daha \u00e7ok tanecikten olu\u015fmas\u0131 ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u00fctlesinin olmas\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Bu durumda daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olan cismin yo\u011funlu\u011fu daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olacakt\u0131r. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle \u0131s\u0131nma ve so\u011fuma gibi etkenler y\u00fcz\u00fcnden herhangi bir cismin yo\u011funlu\u011fu de\u011fi\u015febilir. Bununla birlikte cismin i\u00e7indeki cisimcik\/tanecik say\u0131s\u0131 ayn\u0131 kalacak ve k\u00fctlesi sabit olacakt\u0131r. Bu nedenle Newton, \u201cmadde miktar\u0131\u201dn\u0131 ya da \u201ck\u00fctle\u201dyi cismin temel\/birincil \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak ele al\u0131r. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re bir cismin k\u00fctlesi hareket h\u0131z\u0131ndan da etkilenmez. (Trusted, 1994: 95) Bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f ge\u00e7erlili\u011fini, cismin k\u00fctlesinin hareket h\u0131z\u0131ndan etkilenebilece\u011fi teorisinin ortaya at\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131na kadar korumu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Newton-Leibniz tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong>Kartezyen eylemsizlik ilkesinden yola \u00e7\u0131kan Newton, kuvveti eylemsizlik hareketine kar\u015f\u0131 koyan ya da hareketin h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftiren bir olgu olarak ele al\u0131r. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re kuvvet, hareket eden bir cismi durdurabilir, duran cismi harekete ge\u00e7irebilir, hareket halindeki bir cismin h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 art\u0131rabilir ya da azaltabilir ya da bir cismin do\u011frusal bir \u00e7izgi \u00fczerindeki y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fi\u015ftirebilir. Ayr\u0131ca Newton kuvveti, gezegenleri kapal\u0131 y\u00f6r\u00fcngede tutan bir olgu olarak da ele al\u0131r. Daha da \u00f6nemlisi Newton, Descartes\u2019tan da ileri giderek ivmenin kuvvetle do\u011fru orant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011funu bulmu\u015ftur. Burada \u201civme\u201d h\u0131z de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi anlam\u0131ndad\u0131r, yani cismin h\u0131z\u0131nda bir art\u0131\u015f, azalma ve\/ya da do\u011frusal \u00e7izgideki yolunda herhangi bir de\u011fi\u015fim demektir. (Trusted, 1994: 95)<\/p>\n<p>Eylemsizlik hareketinin soyut niteli\u011fi, yani \u201cideal\u201d bi\u00e7imiyle (\u00fcniform d\u00fczg\u00fcn do\u011frusal hareketin) duyusal bir \u015fekilde g\u00f6zlemlenememesi, eylemsizlik ilkesinin spek\u00fclatif bir \u015fekilde tan\u0131mlanmas\u0131na olanak vermi\u015ftir. Galileo, Descartes ve Leibniz eylemsizlik ilkesini, Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n kusursuzlu\u011funu g\u00f6steren metafizik bir ilke olarak ele alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cFakat Newton eylemsizlik ilkesini metodolojik bir kural olarak ele ald\u0131. Bu kural\u0131 bilinen k\u00fctlelerde yaratt\u0131klar\u0131 ivmeyi \u00f6l\u00e7mek ve kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmak suretiyle, kuvvetleri \u00f6l\u00e7mek ve kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmakta kulland\u0131. Bu k\u00fctlelerin kendileri sabit bir kuvvet, \u00e7ekim kuvveti kullan\u0131larak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebilirdi.\u201d (Trusted, 1994: 95)<\/p>\n<p>Newton fizi\u011finde k\u00fctle a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kla ayn\u0131 de\u011fildir. K\u00fctle klasik fizikte maddenin birincil bir \u00f6zelli\u011fidir ve her zaman sabit bir de\u011fere sahiptir. A\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k ise bir cisme uygulanan \u00e7ekim kuvvetidir. Ay D\u00fcnya\u2019dan daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir k\u00fctleye sahiptir ve bu nedenle de daha az \u00e7ekim g\u00fcc\u00fc vard\u0131r. Yani Ay\u2019da bir cismin k\u00fctlesi ayn\u0131 kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 halde a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha azd\u0131r. Uzayda ise bir cismin a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yok denecek kadar azal\u0131r. (Trusted, 1994: 96)<\/p>\n<p>Daha \u00f6nce ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z gibi g\u00f6kcisimlerini y\u00f6r\u00fcngelerinde tutan kuvvet sorununu g\u00fcndeme getiren d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr Kepler\u2019dir. Kepler, astronomide eliptik hareket ilkesiyle gezegenleri y\u00f6r\u00fcngeleri \u00fczerinde ta\u015f\u0131yan \u201ckristal k\u00fcre\u201d a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131na son vermi\u015f ve bir \u00e7ekim teorisi geli\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton ise hem Kepler\u2019in hareket kanunlar\u0131n\u0131n faydalanarak(3) hem de k\u00fctle ile a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kavramlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ayr\u0131ma dayanarak \u201cm\u00fckemmel bir k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim yasas\u0131\u201d form\u00fcle etmi\u015ftir. K\u00fctle\u00e7ekimi yasas\u0131, \u201castronomi ve mekani\u011finin tek bir matematiksel hareket biliminde birle\u015ftirilmesidir ve bu sonuca Borelli, Huyghens, Wren, Halley ve Hooke\u2019un \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 alt\u0131nda ula\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u201d (Burtt, 1980: 241)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37140\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37140\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-37140\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/26-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"199\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/26-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/26.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 199px) 100vw, 199px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37140\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019\u0131n Westminster Abbey\u2019deki mezar\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Newton k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim ilkesini, Galileo ya da Descartes\u2019\u0131n yapm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu gibi cisimlerin (maddenin) temel bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak ele almam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 135) Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, bir cismin \u00e7ekim kuvveti, t\u0131pk\u0131 bir cismi olu\u015fturan par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n k\u00fctlelerinin toplam\u0131n\u0131n cismin k\u00fctlesini ortaya \u00e7\u0131karmas\u0131 gibi, cismin (atomik) par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n bir i\u015flevidir. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 135) Ancak Newton \u00e7ekim kuvvetini cismin ya da par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n temel bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak kabul etmemi\u015ftir. Newton i\u00e7in \u00e7ekim, \u201cde\u011fi\u015fmez bir kurala g\u00f6re \u00fczerlerinde etkide bulunan d\u0131\u015fsal bir kuvvetin bir etkisidir\u201d. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 136) Newton\u2019\u0131n \u00e7ekim konusunda Descartes, Huygens ve Henry More ile payla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortak nokta \u201cmadde uzaktan etkide bulunamaz\u201d g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yapabilmek i\u00e7in k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim kuvvetinin, nas\u0131l bir \u00f6zellik (fizik ya da metafizik) ta\u015f\u0131rsa ta\u015f\u0131s\u0131n kesin matematiksel kurallara g\u00f6re i\u015fledi\u011finin g\u00f6sterilmesi yeterlidir. Bir haz\u0131rl\u0131k evresi olarak k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim kuvvetinin ger\u00e7ek bir kuvvet olarak de\u011fil, matematiksel bir kuvvet olarak ele al\u0131nmas\u0131 yeterlidir. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 137) Newton\u2019\u0131n felsefesi matematiksel bir do\u011fa felsefesi oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in s\u00f6z konusu kuvvetleri matematiksel kavramlar ya da ili\u015fkiler olarak ele al\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 163) Bu haz\u0131rl\u0131k evresi tamamland\u0131ktan sonra fenomenlerin ger\u00e7ek nedenlerinin ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na ge\u00e7ilebilir. Newton k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim kuvvetinin bo\u015flukta nas\u0131l etkili olabildi\u011fi sorununu dikkate alarak k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimin nedeninin maddi olamayaca\u011f\u0131 sonucuna ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newton, \u201cs\u00fcrekli olarak belli yasalara g\u00f6re davranan\u201d bu neden ya da etki ile Tanr\u0131\u2019ya i\u015faret etmi\u015f, ancak bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131k bir \u015fekilde ifade etmemi\u015ftir. Newton, k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimin nedeniyle ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini Richard Bentley\u2019e yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 mektuplarda ortaya koymu\u015ftur. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 138)<\/p>\n<p>Newton\u2019\u0131n Descartes\u2019tan farkl\u0131 olarak uzay ve madde aras\u0131nda ayr\u0131m yapm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 cisimler aras\u0131nda kalan uzayda neyin varoldu\u011fu sorusunu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r. Newton, daha \u00f6nce uzay ile cisimler aras\u0131nda ayr\u0131m yapm\u0131\u015f olan Bruno ve Kepler gibi cisimlerin aras\u0131nda kalan uzay\u0131n etherle kapl\u0131 oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc ileri s\u00fcrer. Newton\u2019\u0131n fark\u0131, evrendeki uzay\u0131 dolduran \u201cether\u201d tan\u0131m\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r: \u201c\u00c7ok ince ve \u00e7ok esnek bir t\u00f6zd\u00fcr, bir t\u00fcr a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde seyrek gazd\u0131r ve evrendeki uzay\u0131 tam olarak doldurmaz.\u201d (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 132) Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle Newton\u2019\u0131n etheri aralar\u0131nda bo\u015fluk olacak kadar \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck par\u00e7ac\u0131klardan olu\u015fur. Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, evrenin her yeri Descartes\u2019\u0131n varsayd\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi dolu (<em>plenum<\/em>) olsayd\u0131 hareket de olanaks\u0131z olurdu. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 133) Daha do\u011frusu Newton\u2019a g\u00f6re, evrenin tam olarak dolu olmas\u0131 durumunda, uzay harekete diren\u00e7 g\u00f6sterece\u011fi i\u00e7in hareket pratikte olanaks\u0131z olacakt\u0131r. Di\u011fer taraftan uzay\u0131n \u00e7ok ince ve seyrek etherle kapl\u0131 oldu\u011funun kabul edilmesi fiziksel ya da g\u00f6kbilimsel hareket a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan sorun yaratmayacakt\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 159) G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi Newton\u2019\u0131n ether kavram\u0131 bo\u015fluk ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla hareket kavram\u0131na izin verecek bir \u015fekilde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Piskopos George Berkeley (1685-1753), Joseph Raphson\u2019un Newton metafizi\u011fi ile ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini(4) dikkate alarak, Newtonc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n temel kavramlar\u0131 olan mutlak uzay ve mutlak zaman kavramlar\u0131n\u0131n teolojik tehlikelerine i\u015faret etmi\u015f ve s\u00f6z konusu kavramlar\u0131 ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 169) Berkeley\u2019e g\u00f6re alg\u0131lanamaz bir olgusall\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclemez. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde mutlak uzay da alg\u0131lanamayaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in olgusal anlamda varl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan s\u00f6z edilemez. Berkeley\u2019in ele\u015ftirileri(5) Newton \u00fczerinde etkili olmu\u015f ve <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n ikinci bask\u0131s\u0131na \u201cfelsefi\u201d y\u00f6ntemini ortaya koyan \u201cGenel Not\u201du eklemesinin nedenlerinden biri olmu\u015ftur. Di\u011fer neden Leibniz\u2019in Newton\u2019\u0131n evrensel k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim teorisine y\u00f6neltti\u011fi ele\u015ftiridir. S\u00f6z konusu ele\u015ftiriye g\u00f6re, Newton k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim teorisiyle do\u011fa felsefesine anlams\u0131z bir ok\u00fclt\/gizli nitelik sokmu\u015ftur. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 170)<\/p>\n<p>Newton <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n sonunda yer alan \u201cGenel Not\u201dta k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimin nedenini fenomenlerden yola \u00e7\u0131karak tespit edemedi\u011fini ve fenomenlerden \u00e7\u0131karsamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in de hi\u00e7bir hipoteze ba\u015fvurmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 (\u201c<em>Hypotheses non fingo<\/em>\u201d) ifade etmi\u015ftir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cFenomenlerden \u00e7\u0131karsanamayan her \u015fey hipotez olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r. Hipotezler ister metafiziksel isterse fiziksel olsunlar, ister ok\u00fclt\/gizli isterse mekanik niteliklere ili\u015fkin olsunlar, deneysel felsefede hi\u00e7bir yerleri olamaz. Bu felsefede tikel \u00f6nermeler fenomenlerden \u00e7\u0131karsanm\u0131\u015f ve daha sonra t\u00fcmevar\u0131m yoluyla genelle\u015ftirilmi\u015flerdir. Cisimlerin i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezlik, hareketlilik ve itici kuvvetleri ile hareket ve k\u00fctle\u00e7ekim yasalar\u0131 b\u00f6yle ke\u015ffedilmi\u015ftir.\u201d (Newton, 1846: 506-507)<\/p>\n<p>G\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi Newton i\u00e7in yasalar\/ilkeler hipoteze ba\u015fvurmadan da ke\u015ffedilebilir. Ayr\u0131ca bu tutum do\u011fa felsefenin geli\u015fmesini sa\u011flar. Newton\u2019\u0131n<em> Opticks<\/em>\u2019teki deyi\u015fiyle,<\/p>\n<p>\u201cama iki ya da \u00fc\u00e7 hareket ilkesini fenomenlerden t\u00fcretmek ve daha sonra bize t\u00fcm cisimsel \u015feylerin \u00f6zelliklerinin ve eylemlerinin nas\u0131l bu a\u00e7\u0131k ilkelerden \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek felsefede \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ad\u0131m olacakt\u0131r, \u00fcstelik o ilkelerin nedenleri hen\u00fcz ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmasa bile.\u201d (Newton, 2004: 137)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, fiziksel olaylar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klarken metafizik g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini Tanr\u0131\u2019ya dayand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Koyr\u00e9\u2019ye g\u00f6re, Aristoteles ve Descartes\u2019\u0131n Tanr\u0131\u2019lar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca \u201cfelsefi\u201d Tanr\u0131\u2019lard\u0131r. Newton\u2019\u0131n Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131 yaln\u0131zca \u201cfelsefi\u201d bir Tanr\u0131 de\u011fil, H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n (<em>\u0130ncil<\/em>\u2019in) d\u00fcnyay\u0131 yaratan ve yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fcnyan\u0131n Efendisi olan bir Tanr\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 172) Koyr\u00e9\u2019nin <em>\u0130ncil<\/em>\u2019den yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 benzetmeye g\u00f6re Newton\u2019\u0131n Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131, Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n ilk alt\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcnde yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi d\u00fcnya \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 halen s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmekte olan bir Tanr\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. Leibniz\u2019in Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131 ise <em>\u0130ncil<\/em>\u2019deki Sabbath G\u00fcn\u00fc\u2019n\u00fcn (Musevilikte ve baz\u0131 H\u0131ristiyan Kiliselerde haftan\u0131n tap\u0131nmaya ve dinlenmeye ayr\u0131lan son g\u00fcn\u00fc) Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131na benzetilebilir. Bu Tanr\u0131 t\u00fcm i\u015fini bitirdikten sonra (d\u00fcnyan\u0131n t\u00fcm m\u00fcmk\u00fcn d\u00fcnyalar\u0131n en iyisi oldu\u011funu g\u00f6rd\u00fckten sonra) d\u00fcnyaya art\u0131k m\u00fcdahale etmeyen bir Tanr\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 183)<\/p>\n<p>1715 ve 1716 y\u0131lar\u0131nda teoloji ve do\u011fa felsefesi ile ilgili konularda Newton\u2019\u0131n Leibniz\u2019le olan tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, Newton\u2019\u0131n \u00f6\u011frencisi ve dostu olan Samuel Clarke (1675-1729) taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 180; Copleston, 1991: 219) Newton\u2019\u0131n <em>Opticks<\/em>\u2019ini Latinceye \u00e7evirmi\u015f olan Samuel Clarke, Leibniz\u2019in Newton\u2019a y\u00f6netti\u011fi ele\u015ftirilere (Leibniz\u2019e g\u00f6re Newton\u2019\u0131n Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131 evrene s\u00fcrekli m\u00fcdahale eden beceriksiz bir Tanr\u0131\u2019d\u0131r) kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k verirken Newtonc\u0131 Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n se\u00e7me \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc oldu\u011fu, Leibniz\u2019in Tanr\u0131\u2019s\u0131n\u0131n ise zorunluluk \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde davranan bir Tanr\u0131 oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne yer vermi\u015ftir. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 184)<\/p>\n<p>Clarke ile Leibniz\u2019in tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 takip eden on y\u0131llarda Newtonc\u0131 bilim ve felsefe giderek daha fazla a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newtonc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n bu y\u00fckseli\u015fi, aralar\u0131ndaki farklara kar\u015f\u0131n Newtonc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 ortak cephe kuran Descartes\u00e7\u0131lar ve Leibnizciler taraf\u0131ndan durdurulamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Newtonc\u0131l\u0131k 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda tam olarak egemenli\u011fini kurmu\u015ftur. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 206) Newtonc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n zaferinin bir bedeli de, daha \u00f6nce Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n bir etkisi olarak yorumlanan \u00e7ekim kuvvetinin art\u0131k maddenin bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak kabul edilmesi olmu\u015ftur. \u00c7ekim kuvvetinin cisimlerin temel ya da birincil niteliklerinden biri olarak ele al\u0131nmas\u0131 <em>Principia<\/em>\u2019n\u0131n ikinci bask\u0131s\u0131na \u201c\u00f6ns\u00f6z\u201d yazan Roger Cotes\u2019la ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cCisimlerin uzam, devinebilirlik [mobility], ve i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezliklerini ancak deneyler yoluyla biliriz ve yer\u00e7ekimlerini de ayn\u0131 yolda biliriz. \u00dczerlerine g\u00f6zlemler yapabilece\u011fimiz t\u00fcm cisimler uzaml\u0131, devinebilir ve i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezdir; ve bundan t\u00fcm cisimlerin, ve kendilerine ili\u015fkin hi\u00e7bir g\u00f6zlem yapmad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z cisimlerin, uzaml\u0131 ve devinebilir ve i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemez olduklar\u0131 varg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r\u0131z. B\u00f6ylece \u00fczerlerine g\u00f6zlem yapabildi\u011fimiz t\u00fcm cisimlerin a\u011f\u0131r olduklar\u0131n\u0131 buluruz; ve bundan t\u00fcm cisimlerin, ve \u00fczerlerine hi\u00e7bir g\u00f6zlem yapmad\u0131klar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n da a\u011f\u0131r olduklar\u0131 varg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r\u0131z. E\u011fer dura\u011fan y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n cisimlerinin a\u011f\u0131r olmad\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc yer\u00e7ekimlerinin hen\u00fcz g\u00f6zlenmedi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenecek olursa, ayn\u0131 nedenle ne uzaml\u0131 ne devinebilir ne de i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemez olduklar\u0131 \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc dura\u011fan y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n bu \u00f6zelliklerinin de hen\u00fcz g\u00f6zlenmedi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenebilir. K\u0131saca, ya yer\u00e7ekiminin t\u00fcm cisimlerin birincil nitelikleri aras\u0131nda bir yeri olmal\u0131d\u0131r, ya da uzam\u0131n, devinebilirli\u011fin ve i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezli\u011fin olmamal\u0131d\u0131r. Ve e\u011fer \u015feylerin do\u011fas\u0131 cisimlerin yer\u00e7ekimi taraf\u0131ndan do\u011fru olarak a\u00e7\u0131klanm\u0131yorsa, uzamlar\u0131, devinebilirlikleri ve i\u00e7ine-i\u015flenemezlikleri taraf\u0131ndan do\u011fru olarak a\u00e7\u0131klanmayacakt\u0131r.\u201d (Newton, 1998: 128)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_37141\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-37141\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-37141\" src=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/27.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/27.jpg 300w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/27-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/27-100x100.jpg 100w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-37141\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newton\u2019\u0131n ilk portresini 1689\u2019da, d\u00f6nemin en pop\u00fcler portre ressam\u0131 Sir Godfrey Kneller yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. O tarihte Newton 46 ya\u015f\u0131ndayd\u0131.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Baz\u0131 Newtonc\u0131lar ise Cotes\u2019u izleyerek, maddenin \u00f6z\u00fcnde \u201ccisimleri \u00e7ekme g\u00fcc\u00fc\u201d oldu\u011funa inanm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. (Koyr\u00e9, 1998: 207; Newton, 1998: 128; Popper, 1996: 216-217)<\/p>\n<p>Newton, bilindi\u011fi gibi \u201cdevlerin omuzlar\u0131nda oturdu\u011fu i\u00e7in \u00f6teleri g\u00f6rebildi\u011fini\u201d s\u00f6ylemi\u015ftir. Kendisi muhtemelen bu s\u00f6ze pek inanmamaktayd\u0131. Ancak bu s\u00f6z Newton\u2019\u0131n kendinden \u00f6ncekilere borcunu olduk\u00e7a iyi anlat\u0131r. Bununla birlikte o kendinden \u00f6ncekilerin basit bir devamc\u0131s\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi kendinden sonrakilerin basit bir \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fc de\u011fildir:<\/p>\n<p>\u201c[Newton\u2019\u0131n] insano\u011flunun elindeki bilginin ana \u00e7ekirde\u011fine katk\u0131 yolunda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ke\u015fifler, kendisinden \u00f6ncekilerin ve sonrakilerin ke\u015fiflerini a\u015far. Modern d\u00fcnyan\u0131n ba\u015f mimar\u0131yd\u0131. I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve devinimin kadim felsefe bulmacalar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zd\u00fc; fiilen yer\u00e7ekimini ke\u015ffetti. G\u00f6kcisimlerinin seyrinin nas\u0131l tahmin edilece\u011fini g\u00f6sterdi; b\u00f6ylece evrendeki yerimizi belirlemi\u015f oldu. Bilgiyi, somut ve tatbik\u00ee bir mesele haline getirdi; onu nicel ve kesin k\u0131ld\u0131. Birtak\u0131m ilkeler ortaya koydu. Bunlara Newton yasalar\u0131 denir.\u201d (Gleick, 2016: 15)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1) Robert Boyle, alg\u0131lanan nesnedeki \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00f6zelliklerin duyu organlar\u0131ndaki atom ya da \u201cg\u00f6zenekler\u201din etkile\u015fimiyle zihindeki olu\u015fumunu <em>On the Origin of Forms and Qualities<\/em> (\u015eekillerin ve Niteliklerin K\u00f6keni \u00dczerine) adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131nda ele al\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>2) Newton\u2019\u0131n en derin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerini bilenlerden biri John Locke\u2019tu. Newton ve Locke aras\u0131nda 1690 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015flayan canl\u0131 mektupla\u015fma Locke\u2019un 1704\u2019teki \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne dek s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n<p>3) Newton, gravitasyon kanununu form\u00fcle ederken Kepler\u2019in hareket kanunlar\u0131n\u0131n kendi ke\u015ffetti\u011fi ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>4) Joseph Raphson kendi felsefesinde, Henry More\u2019un geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi yer-kaplama kavram\u0131ndan faydalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Joseph Raphson maddi-olmayan yer-kaplamay\u0131 Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi, maddeyi de yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir varl\u0131k olarak ele almak suretiyle Spinozac\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015ften uzak durmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>5) Berkeley\u2019e g\u00f6re, \u201ckuvvet\u201d, \u201cgravitasyon\u201d ve \u201c\u00e7ekim\u201d gibi terimler fizik ya da metafizik \u00f6zellikler olarak de\u011fil, \u201cmatematiksel hipotezler\u201d olarak ele al\u0131nmal\u0131d\u0131r. Berkeley Newton\u2019u \u015fu \u015fekilde ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir: \u201c\u015eimdi moda olan b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00fczeneksel [mekanik] ilke <em>\u00e7ekim<\/em>dir. Bir ta\u015f\u0131n yere d\u00fc\u015fmesi, ya da denizin Aya do\u011fru y\u00fckselmesi kimilerine b\u00f6ylelikle yeterince a\u00e7\u0131klanm\u0131\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnebilir. Ama bunun \u00e7ekim taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6ylenmesiyle nas\u0131l ayd\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015f oluruz?\u201d (Copleston 1991: 323-325).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kaynaklar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1) Bixby, William (1997), <em>Galileo ve Newton\u2019un Evreni,<\/em> \u00e7ev. Nermin Ar\u0131k, \u0130stanbul: T\u00fcbitak ve Yap\u0131 Kredi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>2) Burtt, Edwin Arthur (1980), <em>The Metaphysical Foundation of Modern Physical Science<\/em><em>, <\/em>London: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul.<\/p>\n<p>3) Christianson, Gale E. (2000), <em>Isaac Newton \u2013 Bilimsel Devrim<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Zekeriya Ayd\u0131n, Ankara: T\u00dcB\u0130TAK Kitaplar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>4) Copleston, Frederick (1996), <em>Felsefe<\/em> <em>Tarihi<\/em>, Cilt IV, B\u00f6l\u00fcm c, \u00e7ev. Aziz Yard\u0131ml\u0131, \u0130stanbul: \u0130dea Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>5) Copleston, Frederick (1991), <em>Felsefe<\/em> <em>Tarihi<\/em>, Cilt V, B\u00f6l\u00fcm ab, \u00e7ev. Aziz Yard\u0131ml\u0131, \u0130stanbul: \u0130dea Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>6) Diderot ve D\u2019Alembert (1996), <em>Ansiklopedi ya da Bilimler, Sanatlar ve Zanaatlar A\u00e7\u0131klamal\u0131 S\u00f6zl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc,<\/em> \u00e7ev. Selahattin Hilav, \u0130stanbul: Yap\u0131 Kredi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>7) Dobbs, Betty J. T. &amp; Jacob, Margeret C. (2000), <em>Newton ve Newtonculuk K\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc<\/em>, \u00e7ev. G\u00f6k\u00e7en Ezber, \u0130stanbul: \u0130zd\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>8) Gleick, James (2016), <em>Isaac Newton<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Mehmet Do\u011fan, \u0130stanbul: Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i \u00dcniversitesi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>9) Henry, John (2016), <em>Bilimsel D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin K\u0131sa Tarihi<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Ay\u015fe Mine \u015eengel, \u0130stanbul: Ak\u0131l\u00e7elen Kitaplar.<\/p>\n<p>10) Koyr\u00e9, Alexandre (2006), <em>Bilim ve Devrim-Newton<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Nur K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck, \u0130stanbul: Salyangoz Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>11) Koyr\u00e9, Alexandre (1998), <em>Kapal\u0131 D\u00fcnyadan Sonsuz Evrene,<\/em> \u00e7ev. Aziz Yard\u0131ml\u0131, \u0130stanbul: \u0130dea Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>12) Locke, John (1999), <em>\u0130nsan\u0131n Anlama Yetisi \u00dczerine Bir Deneme<\/em> (II.Kitap), \u00e7ev. Meral Delikara Top\u00e7u, Ankara: \u00d6teki Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>13) Musgrave, Alan (2013), <em>Sa\u011fduyu, Bilim ve \u015e\u00fcphecilik &#8211; Bilgi Kuram\u0131na Tarihsel Bir Giri\u015f,<\/em> \u00e7ev. Nur K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck, \u0130stanbul: \u0130thaki Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>14) Newton, Isaac (2004), <em>Philosophical Writings<\/em>, edited by Andrew Janiak, New York: Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n<p>15) Newton, Isaac (1998), <em>Do\u011fal Felsefenin Matematiksel \u0130lkeleri<\/em> (Se\u00e7meler), \u00e7ev. Aziz Yard\u0131ml\u0131, \u0130stanbul: \u0130dea Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>16) Newton, Isaac (1846), <em>The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy<\/em>, Translated by Andrew Motte, New York: Published By Daniel Adee.<\/p>\n<p>17) Popper, Karl (1996), \u201cBilimin Amac\u0131\u201d, <em>Sa\u011fduyu Filozofu: Popper<\/em>, \u00e7ev. ve der: Cemal G\u00fczel, Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, 213-228.<\/p>\n<p>18) Rossi, Paolo (2009), <em>Modern Bilimin Do\u011fu\u015fu<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Ne\u015fenur Domani\u00e7, \u0130stanbul: Literat\u00fcr Yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131k.<\/p>\n<p>19) Trusted, Jennifer (1994), <em>Physics and Metaphysics<\/em><em>: Theories of Space and Time<\/em>, London and New York: Routledge.<\/p>\n<p>20) Ural, \u015eafak (1994), <em>Bilim Tarihi,<\/em> Cilt \u00dcI, \u0130stanbul: A\u011fa\u00e7 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>21) Vigoureux, Jean-Marie (2008), <em>Newton\u2019un Elmalar\u0131<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Nedim Demirba\u015f, \u0130stanbul: Alk\u0131m Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>22) Westsfall, Richard S. (2018), <em>Newton: Isaac Newton\u2019\u0131n Biyografisi<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Orhan D\u00fcz, \u0130stanbul: Alfa Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>23) Westfall, Richard S. (2016), \u201cIsaac Newton\u201d, <em>Bat\u0131 Gelene\u011finde Bilim ve Din Tarihi<\/em>, Gary B. Ferngren (edit\u00f6r), \u00e7ev. \u00dcmit H\u00fcsrev Yolsal, \u0130stanbul: Say Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, 156-163.<\/p>\n<p>24) Whitfield, Peter (2008), <em>Bat\u0131 Biliminde D\u00f6n\u00fcm Noktalar\u0131<\/em>, \u00e7ev. Serdar Uslu, \u0130stanbul: K\u00fcre Yay\u0131nlar\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>25) Yard\u0131ml\u0131, Aziz (1998), \u201cUsd\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u0130nsan ve Ussal Evren\u201d <em>Do\u011fal Felsefenin Matematiksel \u0130lkeleri<\/em> (Se\u00e7meler) i\u00e7inde, \u0130stanbul: \u0130dea Yay\u0131nevi.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Isaac Newton (1642-1727) hem fizik hem de astronomi alan\u0131nda kendinden \u00f6nce birbirinden kopuk olarak elde edilmi\u015f bilimsel bulu\u015flar\u0131 ve onlar\u0131n sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kapsayan bir sistem kurmu\u015ftur. Bilime katk\u0131lar\u0131 aras\u0131nda en bilineni evrensel \u00e7ekim kanunu ile ilgili oland\u0131r.\u00a0 Bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki b\u00fcy\u00fck bulu\u015flar\u0131 (Leibniz ile e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olarak) diferansiyel ve integral hesab\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesi, s\u0131cak bir nesneden kaybolan \u0131s\u0131 oran\u0131n\u0131n, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":591,"featured_media":37115,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[5349,38],"tags":[482,3514,346],"class_list":["post-37114","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-188-sayi","category-dergi-sayilari","tag-bilim","tag-isaac-newton","tag-newton"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 4.9.10 - aioseo.com -->\n\t<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"max-image-preview:large\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"author\" content=\"R\u0131fat Salto\u011flu\"\/>\n\t<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2019\/10\/01\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"generator\" content=\"All in One SEO (AIOSEO) 4.9.10\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Bilim ve Gelecek\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Newton\u2019\u0131n do\u011fa felsefesi Deney, matematik ve b\u00fcy\u00fc | Bilim ve Gelecek\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2019\/10\/01\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"fb:app_id\" content=\"2104805563100892\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"fb:admins\" content=\"1250955469\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/1-16.jpg\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:secure_url\" content=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/1-16.jpg\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"800\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"550\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2019-09-30T21:00:23+00:00\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2020-04-18T07:56:21+00:00\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/bilimvegelecekdergisi\/\" \/>\n\t\t<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n\t\t<meta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@bilimvegelecek\" \/>\n\t\t<meta name=\"twitter:title\" content=\"Newton\u2019\u0131n do\u011fa felsefesi Deney, matematik ve b\u00fcy\u00fc | Bilim ve Gelecek\" \/>\n\t\t<meta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/1-16.jpg\" \/>\n\t\t<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"aioseo-schema\">\n\t\t\t{\"@context\":\"https:\\\/\\\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/index.php\\\/2019\\\/10\\\/01\\\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu#article\",\"name\":\"Newton\\u2019\\u0131n do\\u011fa felsefesi Deney, matematik ve b\\u00fcy\\u00fc | Bilim ve Gelecek\",\"headline\":\"Newton\\u2019\\u0131n do\\u011fa felsefesi  Deney, matematik ve b\\u00fcy\\u00fc\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/index.php\\\/author\\\/rsaltoglu#author\"},\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/#organization\"},\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2019\\\/09\\\/1-16.jpg\",\"width\":800,\"height\":550},\"datePublished\":\"2019-10-01T00:00:23+03:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2020-04-18T10:56:21+03:00\",\"inLanguage\":\"tr-TR\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/index.php\\\/2019\\\/10\\\/01\\\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu#webpage\"},\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\\\/index.php\\\/2019\\\/10\\\/01\\\/newtonin-doga-felsefesi-deney-matematik-ve-buyu#webpage\"},\"articleSection\":\"188. 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