\u0130nsan topluluklar\u0131 be\u015feri co\u011frafyas\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r, aralar\u0131nda ge\u00e7i\u015f yokmu\u015f izlenimi olan \u201c\u0131rklar\u201d temelinde alg\u0131lan\u0131r. Bu alg\u0131, toplumsal haf\u0131zaya \u00e7\u00f6reklenen yabanc\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve s\u0131n\u0131fsal \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde dahi besler. Asl\u0131nda kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131zda hem bilimin hem de vicdan\u0131n m\u00fcdahalesini zorunlu k\u0131lan k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir cehalet ve sab\u0131kas\u0131 derin bir insanl\u0131k su\u00e7u durmaktad\u0131r.
\nVicdani k\u0131s\u0131m i\u00e7in yapacak pek fazla \u015fey yok; af buyurun, e\u015fek kadar olmu\u015f insana vicdan a\u015f\u0131lamak deveye kanat takmak kadar zor olsa gerektir. Ancak \u201cinsan \u0131rklar\u0131\u201d konusunda y\u00fczy\u0131llar eskiten cehaletin, yakla\u015f\u0131k 40 y\u0131ld\u0131r genetik bilimi sayesinde en az\u0131ndan d\u00fczg\u00fcn m\u00fcrekkep yalam\u0131\u015f zevat aras\u0131nda iyice a\u015f\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hemen belirtelim. Peki o halde, ilerlemeci optimizmin samimi safl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, 40 y\u0131ldan bug\u00fcne cehaletin azal\u0131p, en az\u0131ndan bilgili ve makul insanlar\u0131n ger\u00e7e\u011fi g\u00f6receklerini beklerken, \u00fcnl\u00fc DNA ke\u015fif\u00e7isi ve molek\u00fcler biyolog J. D. Watson\u2019un \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 ifrazat\u0131n\u0131 neye yoraca\u011f\u0131z? (1) Emir b\u00fcy\u00fck yerden; adam DNA\u2019n\u0131n i\u00e7ini g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f; \u0131rk genine de bakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r herhalde, siyaseten do\u011fruluk ad\u0131na do\u011fan\u0131n ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz ger\u00e7e\u011fini g\u00f6rmezden gelemeyiz mi diyece\u011fiz?
\n\u0130\u015fte sorun tam da bu noktada: Geneti\u011fi basit, indirgemeci, \u201cher \u00f6zelli\u011fin bir geni vard\u0131r ve bizi biz yapan genlerdir\u201d avaml\u0131\u011f\u0131yla ele almak ve ideolojik kurgular\u0131n su\u00e7 orta\u011f\u0131 yapmak. Ancak genetik -ve g\u00f6rece\u011fimiz gibi \u00f6zellikle de evrimsel genetik- modern bi\u00e7imiyle bu su\u00e7 ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan ba\u011f\u0131\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r. Modern geneti\u011fi \u00e7e\u015fitli nedenlerden \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc kavrayamayanlar, bu su\u00e7 ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131na, uydurulan bir genetikten yola \u00e7\u0131karak, bilerek ya da bilmeyerek \u0131srarla katk\u0131da bulunsalar da, ortada bilimsel bir ger\u00e7ek vard\u0131r. \u0130nsanlar\u0131 fizik antropolojide bug\u00fcn genel tasnif amac\u0131yla h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131lan \u201c\u0131rklara\u201d ay\u0131rman\u0131n \u00f6zellikle 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l biliminin insan \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini kavrama kategorisi olu\u015fturmak a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir zorunluluk oldu\u011funu bilsek de, \u0131rk kavram\u0131n\u0131n kendisi tarihsel geli\u015fimini \u015f\u00f6yle ya da b\u00f6yle izleyebilece\u011fimiz bir ideolojik kabule dayan\u0131r.
\n\u00d6rne\u011fin, Montaigne a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan, insanlar aras\u0131ndaki e\u015fitsizli\u011fin kayna\u011f\u0131 temelde ahlaki-toplumsal bir kal\u0131ba dayan\u0131r ve zenginli\u011finden, mevkisinden s\u0131yr\u0131lm\u0131\u015f insan, di\u011fer insanlardan farks\u0131zd\u0131r (2). Yakla\u015f\u0131k 300 y\u0131l sonra Macaulay, \u0130ngiliz toplumunda Yahudilere ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131k yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n ikiy\u00fczl\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden dem vurmaktad\u0131r (3).Yine ayn\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131lda, Darwin\u2019in T\u00fcrlerin K\u00f6keni\u2019ni yay\u0131mlamas\u0131ndan sadece 10 y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce, Charles Pickering\u2019in 1851 tarihli hayli h\u00fcmanist The Races of Man kitab\u0131n\u0131n \u0130ngiliz bask\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n yazar taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lmayan \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fc uzun uzun siyahlar\u0131n beyaz insanla -tekil yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n bir sonucu olarak, insanlar\u0131n karde\u015fli\u011finden m\u00fclhem- ayn\u0131 t\u00fcr olduklar\u0131ndan, siyahlar\u0131 a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 \u0131rk sayman\u0131n ahlaki k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fcklerinden dem vurur ve de \u015fa\u015f\u0131lacak bir derinlikle sunulan anatomik, morfolojik ve hatta bili\u015fsel diyebilece\u011fimiz, siyah-beyaz insan ayn\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin kan\u0131tlar\u0131 pe\u015f pe\u015fe s\u0131ralar (4). Ancak \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fcn yazar\u0131, yine de yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n ortaya koydu\u011funu s\u00f6yledi\u011fi temel nitelikte, incelmi\u015flik ve geli\u015fmi\u015flik d\u00fczeylerini yans\u0131tan, zirvesinde beyaz \u0131rk\u0131n oturdu\u011fu bir uygarl\u0131klar hiyerar\u015fisine inan\u0131r. Darwin\u2019in \u0130nsan\u0131n T\u00fcreyi\u015fi, d\u00f6nemin ilerlemeci evrimcili\u011finin insan\u0131 bu kez de do\u011fabilimsel olarak \u0131rklara ay\u0131ran kaba pozitivist alg\u0131s\u0131na mesafe koymaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan evrimsel biyoloji teknik tonuna sahiptir (5). Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin ve evrim savunusunda hakl\u0131 olarak, do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle insanlar aras\u0131ndaki e\u015fitsizlikler aras\u0131nda ili\u015fki kurman\u0131n evrim kuram\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ek yap\u0131s\u0131yla ilgisi bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde durur (6).
\n20. y\u00fczy\u0131l, herkes\u00e7e bilindi\u011fi \u00fczere insan\u0131n kan\u0131n\u0131 donduran teknik sofistikeli\u011fiyle, g\u00f6rev erdemiyle dolu mankafa vazifeperverlerin kutsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 devlet ayg\u0131t\u0131yla y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u015fahikas\u0131 Yahudi soyk\u0131r\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n (7) (ve elbette Ruanda soyk\u0131r\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n) belle\u011fimize kaz\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131, insanlar\u0131n hukuki ve toplumsal yapt\u0131r\u0131mlarla ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n te\u015fhir edilmesi tehdidi alt\u0131nda aleni \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n art\u0131k d\u00fcnyan\u0131n pek \u00e7ok yerinde su\u00e7 say\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 -bununla birlikte; derin, berkitilmi\u015f toplum i\u00e7i tabakala\u015fman\u0131n motoru olan t\u00fcketici rekabetinin yabanc\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve etnofobi ile birle\u015fti\u011fi yerde yine bir \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131\/ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n var oldu\u011fu- bir zaman dilimi olarak ge\u00e7ti. \u00d6zellikle siyah-beyaz ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 temelinde, uyduruk \u0131rksal farkl\u0131l\u0131k tezlerinin u\u00e7u\u015ftu\u011fu 60\u2019lar (8) ve Darwinizmin k\u00f6t\u00fc bir karikat\u00fcr halinde avamla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131larak insan\u0131n sosyal ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel tarihine (ve bu tarihin iktisadi ve toplumsal cinsiyet gibi kimi yar\u0131-biyolojik bile\u015fenlerine) uydurulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 (9), g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde dahi genellikle genetik ve evrim konusunda bilgisi hayli s\u0131\u011f olan bir hayran kitlesine sahip sosyobiyoloji uydurmacas\u0131n\u0131n sahneye \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 70\u2019ler\u2026
\nAsl\u0131nda sosyobiyoloji ile \u201cbilimsel\u201d temelde bi\u00e7imlendirilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lan ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131k, yine bilimin kendisinden, evrimsel insan geneti\u011finden, yakla\u015f\u0131k 40 y\u0131ld\u0131r ciddi bir darbe yemi\u015f durumdad\u0131r. Bu evrimsel insan geneti\u011fi tokad\u0131n\u0131 40 y\u0131la yayd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z zaman da, 1972\u2019de yay\u0131mlanan kritik bir protein \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi makalesi ile ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 yapan ve g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze dek James Watson\u2019un \u201csihirli\u201d molek\u00fcl\u00fc DNA ile s\u00fcren bir \u015famarlar silsilesi ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015faca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek yanl\u0131\u015f olmayacakt\u0131r. Evrimsel biyolojiye -bilimsel akl\u0131 zedelemesi nedeniyle- en az yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k kadar zararl\u0131 olabilen sosyobiyoloji uydurmacas\u0131n\u0131 ele almay\u0131 bir ba\u015fka zamana b\u0131rak\u0131rsak, insan \u0131rk\u0131 iddias\u0131n\u0131n koflu\u011funu ve biyolojik anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yine evrimsel biyoloji ve geneti\u011fin ortaya koydu\u011funu hemen s\u00f6yleyelim. Toplumlar\u0131n insan \u0131rklar\u0131 \u015feklinde biyolojik-genetik temelde ayr\u0131lamayaca\u011f\u0131na ili\u015fkin ilk \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, 1972 y\u0131l\u0131nda Richard Lewontin\u2019in analizini i\u00e7eren \u201cThe Apportionment of Human Diversity\u201d ba\u015fl\u0131kl\u0131 makalede bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131na duyurulmu\u015ftur (10). Lewontin\u2019in bu makalede ortaya koydu\u011fu sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n ge\u00e7en 40 y\u0131l boyunca DNA d\u00fczeyinden genom d\u00fczeyine varan hemen t\u00fcm \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarla desteklendi\u011fini s\u00f6yleyerek bu ilk makaleyi ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 olarak ele alal\u0131m.<\/p>\n
Lewontin\u2019in makalesi (1972)<\/strong> Kafkasyal\u0131lar (beyaz \u0131rk)<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Siyahi Afrikal\u0131<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Mongol-oyid<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n G\u00fcney Asya Aborjinleri<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Amerind<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Okyanusyal\u0131<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Avustr-alya Aborjinleri<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Araplar, Ermeniler, Avusturyal\u0131lar, Basklar, Bel\u00e7ikal\u0131lar, Bulgarlar, \u00c7ekler, Danimarkal\u0131lar, Hollandal\u0131lar, M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar, \u0130ngilizler, Estonyal\u0131lar, Finler, Frans\u0131zlar, G\u00fcrc\u00fcler, Almanlar, Yunanlar, \u00c7ingeneler, Macarlar, \u0130zlandal\u0131lar, Hintliler (Hint\u00e7e konu\u015fan), \u0130talyanlar, \u0130raniler, Norve\u00e7liler, Do\u011fu Yahudileri, Pakistanl\u0131lar (Urduca konu\u015fanlar), Polesler, Portekizler, Ruslar, \u0130spanyollar, \u0130sve\u00e7ler, \u0130svi\u00e7reliler, Suriyeliler, Tristan da Cunhala\u0131lar, Welsh. <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Amharalar, Bantu, Barundi, Batutsi, Bushmen, Kongolez, Ewe, Fulani, Gambiyal\u0131, Ganayanlar,Hobe, Hottentot, Hututu, Ibo, Irakl\u0131, Kenyal\u0131, Kikuyu, Liberyal\u0131, Luo, Madagaskan, Mozambikler, Msutu, Nijeryal\u0131, Pigmeler, Sengalez, Shona, Somalili, Sudanl\u0131, Tanganyikan, Tutsi, Ugandal\u0131, A.B.D. Siyahlar\u0131, \u201cBat\u0131 Afrikal\u0131\u201d, Xosa, Zulu. <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Aynu, Butanez, Bogobo, Bruneiler, Buriyat, \u00c7inli, Dayaklar, Flipinos, Ghasgai, Endonezyal\u0131, Japon, Java, K\u0131rg\u0131z, Koreli, Laplar, Malayan, Senoy, Siyamez, Tayvanez, Tatar, Thais, T\u00fcrkler.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Andaman, Badaga, Chenchu, Irula, Maratha, Nayarlar, Oraonlar, Onge, Tamiller, Todalar.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Alakaluf, Aleutlar, Apa\u00e7i, Atakamenos, \u201cAtabaskan\u201d, Ayamara, Bororo, Karaayak, Kanlar, \u201cBrezilya yerlileri\u201d, Chippewa, Kayngang, \u00c7oko, Coushatta, Cuna, Dieguenos, Eskimo, Flathead, Huasteco, Huichol, Ica, Kwakiutl, Labrador, Lacandon, Mapuche, Maya, \u201cMeksika yerlileri\u201d, Navaho, Nez Perc\u00e9, Paez, Pehuenches, Pueblo, Quechua, Seminol, \u015eo\u015fon, Toba, Ute, \u201cVenezuella yerlileri\u201d, Ksavante, Yanomama <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Amiral adal\u0131, Caroline adal\u0131, Easter adal\u0131, Ellice adal\u0131, Fiji, Gilbertez, Guamiyan, Hawaili, Kapinga, Maori, Marshallez, Melanauyan, \u201cMelenezyan\u201d, \u201cMikronezyan\u201d, Yeni Briton, Yeni Kaledonyal\u0131, Palayuan, Papuan, \u201cPolinezyan\u201d, Saypanez, Samoan, Solomon adal\u0131, Tongan, Trukez, Yapez.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n TEK GRUP<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n Lewontin\u2019in \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ana \u0131rk gruplar (\u00dcst sat\u0131r) ve onlara ait pop\u00fclasyonlar (toplumlar) <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n Toplumlar-i\u00e7i ve ana gruplar aras\u0131 genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik profillerinin kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda Lewontin\u2019in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7e\u015fitlilik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fc, elektroforetik enzim (allozim) ve kan grubu gen frekanslar\u0131n\u0131 kullanan, temel genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fc olan heterozigotlu\u011fun hesaplanmas\u0131na dayan\u0131r. Bu heterozigotluk ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131:<\/p>\n h = \u2211pipj<\/p>\n olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131r ve burada i ve j, bir gene ait farkl\u0131 iki aleli g\u00f6stermektedir, p ise alel (gen) frekans\u0131d\u0131r. H = -\u2211pi ln2 pi<\/p>\n \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlan\u0131r ve p, i yukar\u0131daki heterozigotluk ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131ndaki anlamlar\u0131yla ayn\u0131d\u0131r. Gen<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Toplam (<\/b><\/span><\/span>H<\/b><\/i><\/span><\/span>t\u00fcr<\/b><\/i><\/span><\/span><\/sub>)<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Pop\u00fclasyonlar- i\u00e7i<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Irk-i\u00e7i<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n Irklar-aras\u0131<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n\n Hp<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.994<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.893<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.051<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.056<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Ag<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.994<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.834<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Lp<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.639<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.939<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Xm<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.869<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.997<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n –<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Ap<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.989<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.927<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.062<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.011<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n 6GPD<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.327<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.875<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.058<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.067<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n PGM<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.758<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.942<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.033<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.025<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Ak<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.184<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.848<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.021<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.131<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Kidd<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.977<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.741<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.211<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.048<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Duffy<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.938<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.636<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.105<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.259<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Lewis<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.994<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.996<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.032<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.002<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Kell<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.189<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.901<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.073<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.026<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Lutheran<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.153<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.694<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.214<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.092<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n P<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 1.000<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.949<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.029<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.022<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n MNS<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 1.746<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.911<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.041<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.048<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Rh<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 1.900<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.674<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.073<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.253<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n ABO<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 1.241<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.907<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.063<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.030<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n Ortalama<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.854<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.083<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n 0.063<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n\n \u00c7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131<\/strong> En yeni ve daha kapsaml\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar Lewontin\u2019i do\u011fruluyor<\/strong> KAYNAKLAR<\/strong> \u0130nsan topluluklar\u0131 be\u015feri co\u011frafyas\u0131 y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r, aralar\u0131nda ge\u00e7i\u015f yokmu\u015f izlenimi olan \u201c\u0131rklar\u201d temelinde alg\u0131lan\u0131r. Bu alg\u0131, toplumsal haf\u0131zaya \u00e7\u00f6reklenen yabanc\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve s\u0131n\u0131fsal \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde dahi besler. Asl\u0131nda kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131zda hem bilimin hem de vicdan\u0131n m\u00fcdahalesini zorunlu k\u0131lan k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir cehalet ve sab\u0131kas\u0131 derin bir insanl\u0131k su\u00e7u durmaktad\u0131r. Vicdani k\u0131s\u0131m i\u00e7in yapacak pek fazla \u015fey yok; af […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":67,"featured_media":59253,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[90,21],"tags":[272,292,1877,6879,1878,8070],"class_list":["post-59252","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-52-sayi","category-biyoloji","tag-dna","tag-genetik","tag-irk","tag-irk-kavrami","tag-irkcilik","tag-prof-dr-ergi-deniz-ozsoy"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t
\nRichard Lewontin\u2019in makalesinin temel \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f noktas\u0131, Darwinci evrimsel biyoloji \u00e7er\u00e7evesinden k\u00f6ken alan bireysel genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik vurgusuyla temellendirilen analize dayan\u0131r. Darwin\u2019in T\u00fcrlerin K\u00f6keni\u2019nde \u00f6nemle vurgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve devrimci sonu\u00e7lar yaratan pop\u00fclasyonlar i\u00e7i ve aras\u0131 (t\u00fcr-i\u00e7i) biyolojik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik, bilindi\u011fi gibi, 1900\u2019lerin hemen ba\u015f\u0131nda Mendel\u2019in yeniden ke\u015ffi olarak an\u0131lan geneti\u011fin yeniden do\u011fu\u015funun ard\u0131ndan genetik bir \u00e7er\u00e7eve kazanm\u0131\u015f, 1930\u2019lar\u0131n ilk y\u0131llar\u0131nda ise R.A. Fisher, S. Wright ve J. B. S Haldane taraf\u0131ndan modern evrimsel geneti\u011finin olu\u015fumuna yol a\u00e7an bir kuramsal \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f noktas\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (11). T\u00fcr i\u00e7inde, yani pop\u00fclasyon i\u00e7inde ve aras\u0131ndaki genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik d\u00fczeylerinin, g\u00f6rece kolay bir y\u00f6ntem ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcp evrimsel ve pop\u00fclasyon genetik arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131n s\u0131nanmas\u0131nda kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flamas\u0131 yine 1960\u2019lardad\u0131r (12, 13). Elektrorez denen ve genlerin kodlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 proteinlerin alternatif formlar\u0131n\u0131n (elektroforetik aleller) saptand\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu y\u00f6ntem ile protein \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi hemen her taksona ait t\u00fcrler i\u00e7in genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik profilleri olarak kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r ve DNA d\u00fczeyindeki ilk molek\u00fcler pop\u00fclasyon geneti\u011fi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131na dek (14), evrimsel genetik prati\u011fine egemendirler.
\nRichard Lewontin\u2019in insan genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011finin co\u011frafi b\u00f6l\u00fcmlenmesine ili\u015fkin an\u0131lan 1972 tarihli makalesi de b\u00fcy\u00fck oranda bu elektroforetik protein-genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik profillerine dayan\u0131r. Lewontin bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda, insan k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 kan h\u00fccrelerinden elde edilen enzimleri (proteinler) ve serum proteinlerini (15) ve Mourant\u2019\u0131n ve di\u011fer ilgili ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n klasik kan gruplar\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n (16,17, 18) sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kullanarak, morfolojik ve anatomik (ten rengi, sa\u00e7, burun vb. bi\u00e7imi, sefalik indeks vb. morfometrik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmler) olarak \u201c\u0131rklara\u201d ayr\u0131lan insan gruplar\u0131n\u0131 ve gruplara dahil edilen onlarca pop\u00fclasyonu irdelemektedir. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n temel hipotezi, insan toplumlar\u0131 (pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131) i\u00e7indeki genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik (\u00e7e\u015fitlilik) d\u00fczeyinin, insan\u0131n klasik olarak ana \u0131rk gruplar\u0131na ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan gruplar aras\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fkenlikle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na dayan\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n
\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n
\nLewontin yayg\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131 olan bu heterozigotluk ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131 yerine, insan pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131n\u0131n ve \u201c\u0131rklar\u0131n\u0131n (ana gruplar\u0131n)\u201d irdelenmesi bir t\u00fcr taksonomik pratik oldu\u011fundan, kom\u00fcnite ekolojisinde t\u00fcr \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini \u00f6l\u00e7mek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan Sahnnon bilgi \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc tercih etmi\u015ftir ki bu tercih, Shannon \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn heterozigotlu\u011fa benzer olmas\u0131 ve genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik analizi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan uygun istatistiksel \u00e7er\u00e7eveyi vermesinden dolay\u0131 olduk\u00e7a yerindedir. Bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131:<\/p>\n
\nGen frekanslar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan H de\u011feri \u00fc\u00e7 farkl\u0131 \u015fekilde hesaplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.
\n1) Her bir gen i\u00e7in, H de\u011feri her bir pop\u00fclasyonda \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu pop\u00fclasyon-i\u00e7i de\u011fer H0\u2019d\u0131r ve bir \u0131rk\u0131n i\u00e7erdi\u011fi pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131n ortalamas\u0131 \u015feklinde hesapland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Hpop ad\u0131n\u0131 al\u0131r.
\n2) Her bir gen i\u00e7in H de\u011feri, o genin bir \u0131rk\u0131 i\u00e7eren t\u00fcm pop\u00fclasyonlardaki ortalama gen frekans\u0131 kullan\u0131larak hesaplan\u0131r. Bu yeni \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fcn ad\u0131 H\u0131rk ad\u0131n\u0131 al\u0131r ve bir \u201c\u0131rk\u201d i\u00e7indeki genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik d\u00fczeyini ifade eder.
\n3) Her bir gen i\u00e7in H de\u011feri, t\u00fcr\u00fcn (burada Homo sapiens) tamam\u0131 bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak ele al\u0131narak, t\u00fcr i\u00e7indeki t\u00fcm pop\u00fclasyonlar \u00fczerinden ilgili genin ortalama frekans de\u011feri kullan\u0131larak hesaplan\u0131r. Bu de\u011fer Ht\u00fcr ad\u0131n\u0131 al\u0131r ve t\u00fcr-i\u00e7i genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi ifade eder.
\nYukar\u0131daki de\u011ferler kullan\u0131larak, hiyerar\u015fik bir temel \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct \u00e7er\u00e7evesine ula\u015fmak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fctler ise a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki gibidir:
\nI. Pop\u00fclasyonlar-i\u00e7i genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik = Hpop\/Ht\u00fcr
\nII. Irk i\u00e7indeki pop\u00fclasyonlar aras\u0131 (\u0131rk ya da grup-i\u00e7i) de\u011fi\u015fkenlik = H\u0131rk-Hpop\/Ht\u00fcr
\nIII. Irklar (ana gruplar) aras\u0131 genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik = Ht\u00fcr-H\u0131rk\/Ht\u00fcr
\nLewontin\u2019in bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fctleri ve son \u00fc\u00e7 temel \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fc kullanarak yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik oranlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren tablo ise \u015f\u00f6yledir.<\/p>\n\n\n
\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n <\/td>\n \n \n \n \n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
\nTabloda, ikinci s\u00fctunda, yukar\u0131da a\u00e7\u0131klan\u0131lan Ht\u00fcr de\u011ferleri \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada kullan\u0131lan 17 gen ve gen sistemi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan verilmekte, pop\u00fclayonlar-i\u00e7i, \u0131rk-i\u00e7i ve \u0131rklar-aras\u0131 genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilikler de sonraki \u00fc\u00e7 s\u00fctunda g\u00f6sterilmektedir. Son \u00fc\u00e7 s\u00fctundaki her gene ait ve ortalama olarak verilen de\u011ferler, t\u00fcr-i\u00e7i genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin (Ht\u00fcr) oransal bile\u015fenleri \u015feklinde verilmektedir.
\nLewontin\u2019in ortaya koydu\u011fu sonu\u00e7lar tart\u0131\u015fmam\u0131z a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00e7ok \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r. Birincisi, insan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin ortalama y\u00fczde 85\u2019i (0.854) klasik \u0131rk s\u0131n\u0131flamas\u0131 i\u00e7inde birim olarak yer alan pop\u00fclasyonlar i\u00e7inde i\u00e7erilmektedir. Bir ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle, \u00f6rne\u011fin beyaz \u0131rk\u0131n (Kafkasyal\u0131) i\u00e7indeki her bir pop\u00fclasyon, t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fin y\u00fczde 85 kadar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7ermektedir. Di\u011fer t\u00fcm ana gruplar i\u00e7in de (Siyahi Afrikal\u0131lar, Mongoloyidler vb.) durum b\u00f6yledir. Klasik morfolojik \u00f6zellikler ile tan\u0131mlanan bir \u0131rk i\u00e7indeki genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik (pop\u00fclasyonlar-aras\u0131 genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik) ise t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn toplam genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011finin y\u00fczde 8\u2019i (0.083) kadard\u0131r. Bir ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle, \u00d6rne\u011fin Mongoloyid grupta yer alan Japonlar ile biz T\u00fcrkler aras\u0131ndaki genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131k t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi ba\u011flam\u0131nda ancak y\u00fczde 8 kadard\u0131r. Bu durum, elbette, di\u011fer t\u00fcm ana \u0131rklar i\u00e7indeki pop\u00fclasyon kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in de do\u011frudur.
\nAncak \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n as\u0131l \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 sonucu, ilk bak\u0131\u015fta birbirinden son derece farkl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnen ve bu nedenle \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n pek \u00e7ok bi\u00e7imini do\u011furan ideolojik kurgunun kayna\u011f\u0131 olagelmi\u015f klasik \u0131rk gruplar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki genetik fark\u0131n, t\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn sahip oldu\u011fu genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik ba\u011flam\u0131nda ancak y\u00fczde 6 civar\u0131nda olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bir ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle, siyah-beyaz, mongoloyid-amerind vb. t\u00fcr\u00fcnden d\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 \u00fczerinde temellendirilen keskin \u0131rk kategorilerinin genetik a\u00e7\u0131dan fazla bir \u00f6nemi bulunmamaktad\u0131r. Bir siyahi toplum olarak, \u00f6rne\u011fin, Bantular\u0131n, bir Frans\u0131zdan, \u0130ngilizden ve Almandan ya da bir Tatardan genetik a\u00e7\u0131dan pek fark\u0131 yoktur!<\/p>\n
\nRichard Lewontin\u2019in yakla\u015f\u0131k 40 y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce ortaya koydu\u011fu bu ger\u00e7ek, anatomik a\u00e7\u0131dan modern insan\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k 150 bin y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce d\u00fcnyan\u0131n d\u00f6rt taraf\u0131na yay\u0131lmaya ba\u015flamas\u0131 ve bu yay\u0131lman\u0131n ihmal edilemeyecek bir kar\u0131\u015fma ve kayna\u015fmay\u0131 da i\u00e7eren genetik s\u00fcr\u00fcklenme-kurucu etki temelinde bir demografi dinami\u011fi olu\u015fturmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanmaktad\u0131r (19, 20). Tamamen protein \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi \u00fczerine temellenen bu sonu\u00e7lar, genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerinin daha duyarl\u0131 yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan DNA d\u00fczeyindeki de\u011fi\u015fkenlik profillerinin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131yla da do\u011frulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Pop\u00fclasyonlar ya da \u0131rklar aras\u0131ndaki genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne ili\u015fkin pek \u00e7ok \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bulunmaktad\u0131r (21, 22).
\nAncak, insan genomunun \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131 ard\u0131ndan, insan\u0131n evrimi \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde, en kapsaml\u0131 genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik \u00f6l\u00e7e\u011finin genomik temelli olmas\u0131 beklenir ki biyolojik a\u00e7\u0131dan insan \u0131rk\u0131 olu\u015fturman\u0131n ve bu \u0131rklara genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131k temelli vas\u0131flar atfetmenin anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne seren insan genom \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131 son bir y\u0131lda artan yay\u0131nlarla izlenebilir. Genom perspektifinden ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen konumuza do\u011frudan ili\u015fkin bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, \u00e7ok yak\u0131n bir zaman \u00f6nce yay\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (23). \u0130nsan Genomu \u00c7e\u015fitlilik Paneli\u2019nde yer alan 51 pop\u00fclasyondan birbiriyle akraba olmayan 938 bireyin genomu ortak 650.000 SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) lokus profili kullan\u0131larak incelenmi\u015ftir. \u015eimdiye dek ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen bu en kapsaml\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, Lewontin\u2019in, yaln\u0131zca 17 gen ve genetik sistemindeki protein \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini evrimsel geneti\u011fin Darwinci miras\u0131n\u0131 kullanarak vard\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 do\u011frulamaktad\u0131r.
\nPeki, ba\u015fa d\u00f6nersek, neden James Watson gibi Nobel alm\u0131\u015f bir genetik\u00e7i, geneti\u011fin insan \u0131rklar\u0131 kavram\u0131n\u0131 bo\u015fa \u00e7\u0131karan bilgisine kar\u015f\u0131n \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flarda bulunmaktad\u0131r? Sorunun yan\u0131t\u0131, \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne sahip olmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayabilecek bireysel tarihi bulunmas\u0131n\u0131 bir yana b\u0131rak\u0131rsak, asl\u0131nda Watson\u2019un modern anlamda bir genetik\u00e7i olmamas\u0131nda yatmaktad\u0131r. DNA molek\u00fcler biyolojisine hakim, parlak molek\u00fcler biyoloji ge\u00e7imi\u015fi olan Watson, anla\u015f\u0131lan o ki, geneti\u011fin son 40 y\u0131l\u0131ndan fazla haberdar de\u011fildir -evrimsel geneti\u011fin salt molek\u00fcler biyoloji kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131na sahip biri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan zorlu\u011fu bir yana. Sahip oldu\u011fu \u00fcn ve n\u00fcfuz Watson\u2019u kendi birincil alan\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki geneti\u011fin kapsaml\u0131 i\u00e7eri\u011finin yeterli bilgisine sahip olabilece\u011fi bir mesleki deneyimden uzak tutmu\u015f gibidir. Bu durum, genlerin \u201cbencille\u015ftirildi\u011fi\u201d, \u201cbilgeli\u011fe\u201d sahip k\u0131l\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 v\u00fclger pop\u00fcler bilim hikayecili\u011finin cirit att\u0131\u011f\u0131, pe\u015finde yar\u0131 cahil hayran kitlesi bar\u0131nd\u0131ran genetik indirgemecili\u011fin toplumsal bilin\u00e7te h\u00e2l\u00e2 egemen k\u0131lan dezenformasyon ve tembellik \u00e7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131za da hayli uygundur asl\u0131nda.<\/p>\n
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\n23) J. Z. Li et al., 2008, Worldwide human relationships inferred from genome-wide patterns of variation\u201d, Science 319: 1100-1104.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"