{"id":8611,"date":"2008-01-01T00:20:48","date_gmt":"2007-12-31T22:20:48","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=8611"},"modified":"2017-07-17T13:45:19","modified_gmt":"2017-07-17T10:45:19","slug":"bir-lewontin-bibliyografyasi-denemesi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2008\/01\/01\/bir-lewontin-bibliyografyasi-denemesi","title":{"rendered":"Bir Lewontin bibliyografyas\u0131 denemesi"},"content":{"rendered":"

Richard Lewontin k\u00fclliyat\u0131, yakla\u015f\u0131k 400 civar\u0131nda; evrimsel biyolojik makaleler, kitaplar, kitap ele\u015ftirileri, ekonomi-politik makaleler, yar\u0131-pop\u00fcler makaleler ve polemiklerden olu\u015fan devasa bir \u00fcretimi kaps\u0131yor. Lewontin\u2019in klasik ve devrim niteli\u011findeki evrimsel biyolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131, kitaplar\u0131n\u0131 okuyucuyu ileri okumalar i\u00e7in y\u00f6nlendirebilecek oranda g\u00f6steren bir se\u00e7ilmi\u015f bibliyografya haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyoruz.<\/em><\/h4>\n

Richard Lewontin i\u00e7in a\u00e7\u0131klamal\u0131 bibliyografya haz\u0131rlaman\u0131n zorlu iki y\u00f6n\u00fc var. Birincisi, yakla\u015f\u0131k 400 civar\u0131nda; evrimsel biyolojik makaleler, kitaplar, kitap ele\u015ftirileri, ekonomi-politik makaleler, yar\u0131-pop\u00fcler makaleler ve polemiklerden olu\u015fan devasa bir \u00fcretim. \u0130kincisi ise, bu b\u00fcy\u00fck birikim i\u00e7inden -tamam\u0131n\u0131 vermek bu yaz\u0131 kapsam\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan birincil olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan- hangilerinin se\u00e7ilece\u011fi. \u0130kinci zorlu\u011fun i\u00e7erdi\u011fi ona ekli bir di\u011fer zorluk ise se\u00e7ilen makalelerden hangilerinin k\u0131saca a\u00e7\u0131klanaca\u011f\u0131. Bununla birlikte, Richard Lewontin\u2019in klasik ve devrim niteli\u011findeki evrimsel biyolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131, kitaplar\u0131n\u0131 okuyucuyu ileri okumalar i\u00e7in y\u00f6nlendirebilecek oranda g\u00f6steren bir se\u00e7ilmi\u015f bibliyografya haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorum. Bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncem, Lewontin\u2019in yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 15 y\u0131l kadard\u0131r d\u00fczenli olarak izlemem ve 1950\u2019li y\u0131llar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131ndan itibaren yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t \u00fczerine d\u00f6k\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f olanlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn ar\u015fivimde olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Se\u00e7ti\u011fim makale ya da kitaplar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131 i\u00e7in yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131m a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131n sorumlulu\u011fu bana ait olmakla birlikte, bu a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131n, Lewontin\u2019in eserlerine ili\u015fkin, uluslararas\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7ekteki pek \u00e7ok yazar ve bilimci taraf\u0131ndan kabul g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f saptamalarla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ifade etmek isterim.<\/p>\n

Do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimin mekanizmalar\u0131na ili\u015fkin<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

1) 1955. The effects of population density and composition on viability in Drosophila melanogaster<\/em>. Evolution<\/em> 9: 27-41.<\/p>\n

Populasyon yo\u011funlu\u011fu ve bile\u015fiminin hayatta kal\u0131\u015f\u0131 nas\u0131l etkiledi\u011fini g\u00f6steren klasik makale<\/strong>. Do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimin karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair derinlikli bir \u00f6nc\u00fc \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma \u00f6rne\u011fi.<\/strong><\/p>\n

2) 1956. Estimation of the number of different classes (T. Prout ile birlikte). Biometrics<\/em> 12: 211-223.<\/p>\n

3) 1956. Studies on homeostasis and heterozygosity. I. General considerations. Abdominal bristle number in second chromosome homozygotes of Drosophila melanogaster<\/em>. Am.Nat<\/em>. 90: 237-255.<\/p>\n

4) 1957. The adaptations of populations to varying environments. Cold Spring Harbor Symp.Quant.Biol.<\/em> 22: 395-408.<\/p>\n

5) 1958. A general method for investigating the equilibrium of gene frequency in a population. Genetics<\/em> 43: 419-434.<\/p>\n

Ku\u015faklar boyunca de\u011fi\u015fmeyen uyum \u015fart\u0131 kald\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, bir populasyondaki gen frekans\u0131 (evrimle\u015fme) de\u011fi\u015fimine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimi hesaplama y\u00f6ntemi \u00f6neren klasik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma.<\/strong><\/p>\n

6) 1958. Studies on homeostasis and heterozygosity. II. Loss of heterosis in a constant environment. Evolution<\/em> 12: 494-503.<\/p>\n

7) 1959. The goodness-of-fit test for detecting natural selection (C. C. Cockerham ile birlikte). Evolution<\/em> 13: 561-564.<\/p>\n

Do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle de\u011fi\u015fen bir Hardy-Weinberg populasyonunda, se\u00e7ilimi saptama s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n istatistiksel testin g\u00fcc\u00fcne ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 oldu\u011funa ili\u015fkin \u00f6nemli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma.<\/strong><\/p>\n

8) 1959. On the anomalous response of Drosophila pseudoobscura<\/em> to light. Am. Nat<\/em>.93: 321-328.<\/p>\n

Kantitatif yakla\u015f\u0131mda \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

9) 1960. Quantitative Zoology<\/em>, 2nd<\/sup> edn (G. G. Simpson ve A.roe ile birlikte).New York: Hartcourt Brace.<\/p>\n

Genelde zooloji, \u00f6zelde de sistematik sorunsal\u0131na kantitatif yakla\u015f\u0131m konusunda \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f olan kitap. Lewontin kitab\u0131n ikinci bask\u0131s\u0131nda yazar kadrosuna dahil olmu\u015ftur ve (istatistik y\u00f6ntemlere hakim bir evrimsel genetik\u00e7i olarak) varyans analiz tekni\u011fini kullan\u0131p kitab\u0131n klasik-tan\u0131msal zooloji perspektifinden, biyolojiye uygun istatistiksel yakla\u015f\u0131mla, de\u011fi\u015fkenlik analizi \u00e7er\u00e7evesine ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kitap, zooloji ve s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma bilimindeki klasik y\u00f6ntemlere tutku derecesinde ba\u011fl\u0131 olan bir ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n kemikle\u015ftirdi\u011fi kuramsal \u00e7er\u00e7evede derin bir \u00e7atlak yaratm\u0131\u015f ve denilebilir ki, biyolojinin \u201ckutsal\u201d metinlerinden biri olan Sokal ve Rohlf\u2019\u0131n Biyometri<\/em>\u2019sinde de v\u00fccut bulan, derinlikli kantitatif kavray\u0131\u015fa giden yolu a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n

10) 1960. Interaction between inversion polymorphism of two chromosome pairs in the grasshopper Moraba scurra<\/em>. Evolution<\/em> 14: 116-129.<\/p>\n

11) 1960. The evolutionary dynamics of a polymorphism in the house mouse (L. C. Dunn ile birlikte). Genetics<\/em> 45: 705-722.<\/p>\n

12) 1960. The evolutionary dynamics of complex polymorphisms (K. Kojima ile birlikte). Evolution<\/em> 14: 458-472.<\/p>\n

13) 1961. Evolution and theory of games. J.Theor.Biol<\/em>. 1: 382-403.<\/p>\n

14) 1962. Interdeme selection controlling a polymorphism in the house mouse. Am.Nat<\/em>. 96: 65-78.<\/p>\n

15) 1963. Interaction of genotypes determining viability in Drosophila busckii<\/em> (Y. Matsuo ile birlikte). Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.<\/em> USA 49 : 270-278.<\/p>\n

16) 1963. Relative fitness of geographic races of Drosophila serrata<\/em> (L. C. Birch, T. Dobzhansky ve P. O. Elliot ile birlikte). Evolution<\/em> 17: 72-83.<\/p>\n

17) 1963. Models, mathematics, and metaphors. Synthese<\/em> 15: 222-244.<\/p>\n

18) 1963. Cytogenetics of the grasshopper Moraba scurra<\/em>.VII. Geographic variation of adaptive properties of inversions (M. J. D. White ve L. E. Andrew ile birlikte). Evolution<\/em> 17: 147-162.<\/p>\n

Se\u00e7ilim birimi olarak kromozom<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

19) 1964. The interaction of selection and linkage. I. General considerations: heterotic models. Genetics<\/em> 49: 49-67.<\/p>\n

20) 1964. The interaction of selection with linkage. II. Optimum models. Genetics<\/em> 50: 757-382.<\/p>\n

Bu iki makalede Lewontin, tek tek genlerin de\u011fil de aralar\u0131nda genetik ba\u011flant\u0131 olan genlerin olu\u015fturdu\u011fu kromozomun se\u00e7ilim birimi olarak davranabildi\u011fini ortaya koymu\u015ftur. Makalelerin bir di\u011fer \u00f6nemi, genlerin birlikte kal\u0131t\u0131larak evrimle\u015fmesine ili\u015fkin kullan\u0131lan parametrelerin klasikle\u015fecek oranda -t\u00fcm yayg\u0131n kullan\u0131m cephesiyle- ilk kez tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n

21) 1965. The robustness of homogeneity tests in 2 x N tables (J. Felsenstein ile birlikte). Biometrics<\/em> 21: 19-33.<\/p>\n

Modern molek\u00fcler evrimsel geneti\u011fin do\u011fu\u015fu<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

22) 1966. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations. I. The number of alleles at different loci in Drosophila pseudoobscura<\/em> (J. L. Hubby ile birlikte). Genetics<\/em> 54: 577-594.<\/p>\n

23) 1966. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations. II. Amount of variation and degree of hetrozygosity in the natural populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura<\/em> (J. L. Hubby ile birlikte). Genetics<\/em> 54: 595-609.<\/p>\n

Pe\u015f pe\u015fe yay\u0131nlanan bu iki makale \u00f6ncesinde, evrimsel biyoloji ve geneti\u011fin en \u00f6nemli sorunsal\u0131, bir populasyondaki de\u011fi\u015fkenlik miktar\u0131n\u0131n saptanmas\u0131yd\u0131. Zira genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik \u00fczerinden do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle evrimle\u015fme senaryolar\u0131 haz\u0131rlanabilirdi. Yayg\u0131n olarak kullan\u0131lan genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik belirte\u00e7leri olarak kromozomal varyantlar \u00f6n plandayd\u0131. Patolojik etkileri nedeniyle kolayl\u0131kla tan\u0131nan ve genellikle bir ya da birka\u00e7 gen taraf\u0131ndan kontol edilen \u201cmorfolojik mutasyonlar\u201d da g\u00f6zde belirte\u00e7ler aras\u0131ndayd\u0131. Bu iki makalede ilk kez,\u00a0 genin alternatif formlar\u0131n\u0131 genin hemen hemen do\u011frudan \u00fcr\u00fcnleri olan proteinler d\u00fczeyinde tan\u0131mlaman\u0131n bir yolu \u00f6nerilmekte, daha da \u00f6nemlisi, bir elektrik alan\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fturuldu\u011fu ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 bir ortam (jel) kullan\u0131larak g\u00f6zlenen bu genetik de\u011fi\u015fkenlik, evrimsel genetik arg\u00fcmanlar \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde kolayca ele al\u0131nmaktayd\u0131. Molek\u00fcler evrimin milad\u0131 say\u0131labilecek \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 i\u00e7eren bu makalelerin yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan, evrimsel geneti\u011fin \u201cklasik\u201d d\u00f6nemi b\u00fcy\u00fck oranda sona ermi\u015ftir. Molek\u00fcler evrimin do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle de\u011fil de aralar\u0131nda se\u00e7ilimsel avantaj farklar\u0131 olmayan \u201cn\u00f6tr\u201d mutasyonlar\u0131n genetik s\u00fcr\u00fcklenmesiyle olu\u015ftu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyen n\u00f6tral alel teorisi de as\u0131l kuramsal geli\u015fimini bu iki makalede \u00f6nerilen elektroforetik-protein de\u011fi\u015fkenli\u011fi \u00fczerine kuracakt\u0131r. Evrimsel geneti\u011fin DNA d\u00f6nemine (ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 1983) dek evrimi en yayg\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bi\u00e7imi olan bu protein de\u011fi\u015fkenli\u011fi metodolojisi h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131lmakta ve \u00f6nemli evrimsel sorunlar\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclmesine yard\u0131mc\u0131 olmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6zetle s\u00f6yleyecek olursak; bu iki makalenin yay\u0131nlanmas\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan Kuhnvari bir paradigma de\u011fi\u015fimi ile modern molek\u00fcler evrimsel genetik do\u011fmu\u015ftur. \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

24) 1966. On the measurement of relative variability. Syst. Zool.<\/em> 15: 141-142<\/p>\n

S\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma amac\u0131yla bir zamanlar yayg\u0131n bi\u00e7imde kullan\u0131lan \u201cvaryasyon katsay\u0131s\u0131\u201dn\u0131n, yani bir \u00f6rneklem \u00fczerinden elde edilen standart sapman\u0131n \u00f6rneklem ortalamas\u0131na b\u00f6l\u00fcnerek standardize edilmi\u015f bi\u00e7iminin, istatistiksel a\u00e7\u0131dan s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rma i\u015fine uygun olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ilk kez ortaya kondu\u011fu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma.<\/strong><\/p>\n

25) 1966. Hybridization as a source of variation for adaptation to new environments (L.C. Birch ile birlikte). Evolution<\/em> 20: 315-336.<\/p>\n

Ekolojinin klasik, kutsal metinlerinden \u201cDistribution and Abundance of Animals<\/em>\u201d\u0131n iki yazar\u0131ndan biri olan Birch ile yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, iki farkl\u0131 t\u00fcr\u00fcn olu\u015fturdu\u011fu hibridle\u015fme ile yeni \u00e7evrelere adaptasyonlar\u0131n olabilece\u011fini g\u00f6steren ilk \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n kuramsal \u00f6nemi, t\u00fcr-t\u00fcr hibritle\u015fmesinin genellikle uyumu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck bireylere yol a\u00e7aca\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki kabule ters d\u00fc\u015fen kan\u0131tlar\u0131 ekolojinin ve geneti\u011fin g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc \u00e7er\u00e7evesini kullanarak sunmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Bilim felsefecileri i\u00e7in yo\u011fun bir tart\u0131\u015fma alan\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

26) 1968. The effect of differential viability on the population dynamics of t<\/em> alleles in the house mouse. Evolution<\/em> 22: 262-273.<\/p>\n

27) 1969. On population growth in a randomly varying environment (D. Cohen ile birlikte). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA<\/em> 62: 1056-1060.<\/p>\n

28) 1970. The units of selection. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Sys.<\/em> 1: 1-18.<\/p>\n

\u0130lk say\u0131s\u0131 1970 yay\u0131mlanmaya ba\u015flayan y\u0131ll\u0131k ekoloji ve sistematik (Annual Reviews of Ecology ans Systematics<\/em>) ciltleri, evrimsel biyoloji, ekoloji ve modern sistematik konular\u0131n\u0131n i\u015flendi\u011fi, yakla\u015f\u0131k 40 y\u0131ld\u0131r \u00e7\u0131kan prestijli iki seriden biridir (di\u011feri Evolutionary Bioloy<\/em>; ilk y\u0131\u0131lar\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck evrimci Theodosius Dobzhansky\u2019nin edit\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flayan klasik y\u0131ll\u0131k). \u0130lk cildin ilk makalesi ise Lewontin taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Lewontin bu makalesinde, se\u00e7ilimin hangi d\u00fczeylerde ele al\u0131nabilece\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir. Organel, h\u00fccre, birey, populasyon ve daha \u00fcst d\u00fczey biyolojik organizasyon d\u00fczeyleri i\u00e7in ele al\u0131nan se\u00e7ilimin Darwinyen se\u00e7ilim a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan ne anlama geldi\u011finin analiz edildi\u011fi bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, bilim felsefecileri (\u00f6zellikle evrim felsefecileri) i\u00e7in yo\u011fun bir tart\u0131\u015fma alan\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. <\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong>Genetik \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 m\u00fccadele<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

29) 1970. Race and intelligence. Bull. Atom. Sci.<\/em> 26 (Mar): 2-8<\/p>\n

30) 1970. Is the gene unit of selection? (I. Franklin ile birlikte). Genetics<\/em> 65: 707-734.<\/p>\n

31) 1972. Testing the theory of natural selection. Nature<\/em> 236: 181-182.<\/p>\n

32) 1972. The apportionment of human diversity. Evol. Biol<\/em>. 6: 381-398.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsan toplumlar\u0131n\u0131n \u0131rklara ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 ve onunla tarihsel ili\u015fkili \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k sorunu, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u0131k\u0131m\u0131 besleyen \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131n kristalize oldu\u011fu ideolojik b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u00e7inde ilk kez 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131za \u00e7\u0131kar. Lewontin\u2019in 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n son \u00e7eyre\u011fine girerken yay\u0131nlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu makalesinde ise bu \u00f6nyarg\u0131n\u0131n bilimsel kisveye b\u00fcr\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f halinin genetik iflas\u0131n\u0131n kan\u0131tlar\u0131 ilk kez sunulmaktad\u0131r. Makale, insanlar\u0131n \u201cgeleneksel\u201d bi\u00e7imde, yani kafatas\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcleri, ten vb. rengi t\u00fcr\u00fcnden morfolojik olarak \u0131rklara ayr\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n genetik temeli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, dahas\u0131 genetik a\u00e7\u0131dan insan i\u00e7in \u0131rk tan\u0131mlamas\u0131n\u0131n yap\u0131lamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Makalenin \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bulgusu, insan t\u00fct\u00fcndeki genetik varyasyonun y\u00fczde 94 kadar\u0131n\u0131n gruplar-i\u00e7inde bulundu\u011fu, geri kalan yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 7\u2019lik varyasyonun gruplar-aras\u0131nda oldu\u011fudur. Bunun anlam\u0131, \u00f6rne\u011fin, \u201cbeyaz ve siyah \u0131rk\u201d aras\u0131ndaki genetik fark\u0131n, \u201csiyah\u201d ya da \u201cbeyaz\u201d \u0131rk i\u00e7indeki toplumlar aras\u0131ndaki genetik farktan \u00e7ok daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck oldu\u011fudur. \u0130nsan\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcrel tarihinin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 grup-i\u00e7i toplumsal tabakalanma az \u00e7ok genetik farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 olan alt-populasyonlar yarat\u0131rken, gruplar aras\u0131ndaki fark insan\u0131n evrimsel tarihinin ortaya koydu\u011fu yo\u011fun kar\u0131\u015fma ve kayna\u015fman\u0131n sonucunda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve kalmaya devam etmektedir. 200 y\u0131ll\u0131k siyasi co\u011frafya alg\u0131s\u0131 insanlar\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rlar i\u00e7ine hapsetmeye devam ederken, 150 bin y\u0131ll\u0131k kayna\u015fma ve yay\u0131lma tarihimiz bizi yine de bir arada tutmaktad\u0131r. Lewontin\u2019in biyolojik \u0131rk alg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 y\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyebilece\u011fimiz bu makalenin t\u00fcm \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 DNA d\u00fczeyinde de (Lewontin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda protein \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fini kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r) defalarca do\u011frulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bununla birlikte, son zamanlarda \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131na tan\u0131k oldu\u011fumuz James Watson gibi -DNA ke\u015ffindeki rol\u00fcyle \u00fcnl\u00fc ve ke\u015ffin yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 1953\u2019ten bu yana ciddi bilimsel \u00fcretimi olmayan biri olarak- k\u00f6t\u00fc \u00a0genetik\u00e7i ve evrim bilgisizi olanlar\u0131n yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 ideolojik \u201csaf\u201d, akademik uzant\u0131lar\u0131yla birlikte, h\u00e2l\u00e2 etkin durumdad\u0131r.\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lewontin\u2019in opus magnum\u2019u<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

33) 1973. Distribution of gene frequency as a test of the theory of the selective neutrality of polymorphism (J. Krauker ile birlikte). Genetics<\/em> 74: 175-195.<\/p>\n

Do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimi genetik varyasyon profilleri \u00fczerinden bulgulamaya y\u00f6nelik ilk evrimsel genetik testin sunuldu\u011fu makale. Testin versiyonlar\u0131 vard\u0131r ve h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n

34) 1974. The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change<\/em>. New York: Columbia University Press.<\/p>\n

Lewontin\u2019in opus magnum<\/em>\u2019u diyebilece\u011fimiz kitab\u0131. Kitap, diyalektik metodolojinin kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 an\u0131tsal bir ba\u015fyap\u0131tt\u0131r. Populasyon ve evrimsel geneti\u011fin \u00f6nemli ba\u015fvuru kaynaklar\u0131ndan biri olmaya devam etmektedir. Kitab\u0131n tipik \u00f6zelliklerinden biri, evrimsel biyoloji ve geneti\u011fin kuramsal yap\u0131s\u0131nda yer alan, se\u00e7ilimcilik kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda n\u00f6tral varyasyon ile evrimle\u015fme diyebilece\u011fimiz dikotominin taraflar\u0131n\u0131n asl\u0131nda ayn\u0131 \u015feyleri s\u00f6yledi\u011fini ortaya koymas\u0131d\u0131r. Yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6neme dek olan t\u00fcm evrimsel genetik tarihin insan\u0131 k\u0131skand\u0131ran derinlikteki analizini i\u00e7eren kitap, evrimsel biyoloji ve genetik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar i\u00e7in olmazsa olmaz kaynaklardan biridir. Zaman zaman Lewontin\u2019e neden kitab\u0131n yeni bir versiyonunu -yani DNA varyasyonu \u00fczerinden ele al\u0131nan\u0131n\u0131- yazmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 sorulmaktad\u0131r. Lewontin\u2019in buna yan\u0131t\u0131, kitapta ortaya koydu\u011fu \u00e7er\u00e7evenin genetik belirte\u00e7 de\u011fi\u015ftirmekle de\u011fi\u015fmeyece\u011fidir ki -ayni ile vakidir- dikkatli bir okurun bu saptamaya kat\u0131lmamas\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

35) 1974. Annotation: The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. Am. J. Hum. Genet.<\/em> 26: 400-11.<\/p>\n

Varyans analizi, populasyon geneti\u011finin kurucu babalar\u0131ndan biri olan Ronald Aylmer Fisher\u2019in buldu\u011fu istatistiksel bir y\u00f6ntemdir ve bir parametreye\/parametrelere ili\u015fkin de\u011fi\u015fkenli\u011fin bile\u015fenlere ayr\u0131lmas\u0131yla nedensellik tan\u0131m\u0131 yapan \u00f6nemli kuramsal bir \u00e7er\u00e7evedir. Bununla birlikte, varyans analizinin kabulleriyle kurulan modeller ile yap\u0131lacak yorumlarda a\u015f\u0131r\u0131ya ka\u00e7mamak gerekir zira bu kabuller -her alanda ger\u00e7ekli\u011fin \u00e7ok y\u00f6nl\u00fc ve karma\u015f\u0131k oldu\u011fu g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda- olgular ard\u0131ndaki nedenselli\u011fi fazlas\u0131yla basit bi\u00e7imde tan\u0131mlayan \u00f6nermelerdir. Lewontin\u2019in makalesi varyans analizini kullan\u0131rken dikkatli olunmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fine dikkati \u00e7eken ilk -i\u00e7erdi\u011fi derinlik a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan h\u00e2l\u00e2 tek diyebilece\u011fimiz- \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmad\u0131r. \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Sosyobiyolojik serbest at\u0131\u015fa kar\u015f\u0131 bilimin savunusu<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

36) 1974. Darwin and Mendel-the materialist revolution. Heritage of Copernicus: Theories \u201cMore Pleasing to the Mind\u201d<\/em> i\u00e7inde; syf. 166-183., ed.: J. Neyman. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.<\/p>\n

37) 1975. The Heritability hang-up (M. W. Feldman ile birlikte). Science<\/em> 190: 1163-1168.<\/p>\n

38) 1975. Genetic aspects of intelligence. Ann. Rev. Genet.<\/em> 9: 382-405.<\/p>\n

39) 1976. The fallacy of biological determinism. The Sciences<\/em> 16: 6-10.<\/p>\n

40) 1976. Sociobiology-a caricature of Darwinism. Phil. Sci. Assoc<\/em>. 2: 22-31.<\/p>\n

Darwin\u2019in ortaya koydu\u011fu -biyolojik temelleri olduk\u00e7a sa\u011flam olan- do\u011fal se\u00e7ilim \u00e7er\u00e7evesinin, \u00f6zellikle 1975\u2019te E. O. Wilson\u2019un Sociobiology<\/em>\u2019sinin yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131 ard\u0131ndan ba\u015flayan \u201cinsan do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131, tarihini\u201d salt biyolojik temelde a\u00e7\u0131klama furyas\u0131nda karikat\u00fcrle\u015fti\u011fine ili\u015fkin makale. Bu makalede, sosyobiyolojinin kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131n t\u00fcm zaaflar\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131k edildi\u011fini g\u00f6rmekteyiz. Darwin ve Evrim\u2019in avamla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p sosyobiyolojik serbest at\u0131\u015f\u0131n doru\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 1975 sonras\u0131ndan 80\u2019lerin ortas\u0131na dek olan d\u00f6nemde, Lewontin ve Stephen Jay Gould, evrimsel biyolojinin a\u011f\u0131r toplar\u0131 olarak, i\u00e7lerinde Richard Dawkins ve E.O. Wilson\u2019un da bulundu\u011fu sosyobiyoloji savunucular\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 hayli sert tonda s\u00fcren bir bilimsel m\u00fccadeleye girmi\u015flerdir.\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

41) 1977. Biological determinism as a social weapon. Biology as a Social Weapon<\/em> i\u00e7inde, syf. 6-18., Minneapolis, MN: Burgess.<\/p>\n

Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131tt\u0131\u011f\u0131 eser<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

42) 1978. Adaptation. Sci. Am.<\/em> 239 (3): 212-228.<\/p>\n

Genel kavran\u0131\u015f\u0131yla adaptasyon, canl\u0131lar\u0131n i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7evreye olan \u201cm\u00fckemmel\u201d uyumlar\u0131n\u0131n bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr ve bu uyumu sa\u011flayan \u201cetken\u201d ise do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimdir. B\u00f6yle bir alg\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fal sonucu olarak bir organizman\u0131n her bir par\u00e7as\u0131na s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 belirgin bir i\u015flev yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Lewontin bu makalesinde, \u00f6ncelikle adaptasyonlar\u0131n evrimsel ger\u00e7ekli\u011fine dikkati \u00e7ekmekte, ancak yap\u0131lan adaptasyon tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7erdi\u011fi biyolojik tutars\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 derinlemesine ele al\u0131p do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimin mutlaka adaptasyonla sonu\u00e7lanacak bir s\u00fcre\u00e7 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. Her bir par\u00e7aya bir i\u015flev belirlemek ve bu i\u015flevlerin olu\u015fumu i\u00e7in evrimsel hikayeler uydurmak, Darwin\u2019in de \u00f6zenle vurgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7o\u011fulcu biyolojik yakla\u015f\u0131ma terstir ve 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l H\u0131ristiyan do\u011fac\u0131 ilahiyat\u0131n\u0131n insan merkezli bak\u0131\u015fla dizayndan arg\u00fcman \u00fcreterek yarat\u0131c\u0131ya vard\u0131\u011f\u0131 duruma daha \u00e7ok uyar. Lewontin\u2019in adaptasyon makalesi, yukar\u0131da k\u0131saca de\u011finilen ba\u015fl\u0131klar\u0131n derinlemesine bir ele al\u0131n\u0131\u015f\u0131 olarak, hem uzman evrimciler hem de konuya merakl\u0131 okur i\u00e7in vazge\u00e7ilmez bir kaynak niteli\u011fini ta\u015f\u0131maktad\u0131r.\u00a0 \u0130nternette s\u0131k\u00e7a kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131za \u00e7\u0131kan ve yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n Lewontin\u2019in kurdu\u011fu bir c\u00fcmleyi ba\u011flam\u0131ndan kopar\u0131p de\u011fi\u015ftirerek, \u201ci\u015fte tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f evrimci do\u011fadaki her \u015feyin m\u00fckemmel bir bi\u00e7imde dizayn edildi\u011fini itiraf ediyor\u201d diye yaygara kopard\u0131klar\u0131 makale de bu makaledir.\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Gould ile birlikte evrimsel biyolojide \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

43) 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme (S. J. Gould ile birlikte). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B<\/em>. 205: 581-598.<\/p>\n

Organizmalar\u0131n i\u015flevleri kesin par\u00e7alara ay\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p evrimsel-biyolojik olarak incelenemeyecekleri, her organizmada adaptasyonla ilgisiz ancak adaptasyonun yan \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olarak olu\u015fmu\u015f \u00f6zellikler bulundu\u011fu, evrimsel akrabal\u0131\u011f\u0131n ortaya koydu\u011fu yap\u0131sal k\u0131s\u0131tlamalar \u00fczerine do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimin i\u015fledi\u011fini belirten \u00fcn\u00fc akademik s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 dahi a\u015fm\u0131\u015f bir ba\u015fyap\u0131t. Lewontin ve S. J. Gould\u2019un y\u00fcksek birikimlerinin sentetik \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olan bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma -yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde- \u0130ngiltere ve Amerika\u2019da 40 y\u0131ll\u0131k bir ge\u00e7mi\u015fi bulunan adaptasyonist program\u0131n (organizman\u0131n her bir par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131 i\u015flevsel bir adaptasyonla ili\u015fkilendirip a\u00e7\u0131klaman\u0131n) ele\u015ftirisini yapmakta, daha derin genetik bir yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n organizmalar\u0131n tarihsel arkaplan\u0131 ile birlikte ele al\u0131nmas\u0131yla olu\u015fturulacak b\u00fct\u00fcnc\u00fcl (organizmik) bir metodolojiyi ortaya koymaktad\u0131r. Filogenetik yak\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n belirledi\u011fi evrimsel k\u0131s\u0131tlama ile yeni i\u015flev ve yap\u0131lar\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131n\u0131n genomik evriminin de \u00f6nemli bir par\u00e7as\u0131 oldu\u011funun g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde ortaya kondu\u011funu, \u201cindirgenemez karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131kta\u201d olan yap\u0131lar\u0131n daha \u00f6nceki yap\u0131lardan do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimle evrimle\u015fti\u011finin pek \u00e7ok biyolojik sistem i\u00e7in g\u00f6sterilebildi\u011fini g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, makalenin can al\u0131c\u0131 \u00f6nemi hemen kendini belli etmektedir. Evrim-geli\u015fim biyolojisi ili\u015fkisini (g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki ad\u0131yla evimsel geli\u015fim biyolojisi) tarihsel \u00f6ncelikle ortaya koymu\u015f, Anglosakson d\u00fcnyas\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki Avrupal\u0131 gelene\u011finin de hakk\u0131n\u0131 teslim eden bu makale, son 30 y\u0131l\u0131n evrimsel biyolojide etkisi \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 nitelikte olan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardan biridir. Biyoloji felesefecileri ve tarih\u00e7ileri taraf\u0131ndan makalenin 30. y\u0131l\u0131 olan 2009\u2019da \u00f6zel bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yap\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da s\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcze ekleyelim. \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Radikal bilim makaleleri<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

44) 1980. The political economy of food and agriculture (World Agricultural Project). Int. J. Healt Sci.<\/em> 10: 161-170.<\/p>\n

45) 1981. Evolution and creation debate: a time for truth. BioScience<\/em> 31: 559.<\/p>\n

46) 1982. Human Diversity<\/em>. Scientific American Books.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsan\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ve genetik \u00e7e\u015fitlilik d\u00fczlemlerini b\u00fcy\u00fck bir a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131kla ortaya koyan, sa\u011flam bir biyolojik nedensellik metodolojisini de bu arada ortaya koyan klasik kitap. Kitab\u0131n ikinci bask\u0131s\u0131 1996\u2019da \u00e7\u0131kn\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n

47) 1985. The Dialectical Biologist<\/em> (R. Levins ile birlikte). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\n

Tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f kuramsal ekolog ve radikal bilimci Richard Levins ile birlikte kaleme al\u0131nan, Lewontin ve Lewins\u2019in \u00e7e\u015fitli dergi ve kitaplarda yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 diyalektik metodoloji eksenli radikal bilim makalelerinden olu\u015fan ak\u0131l fikir an\u0131t\u0131. Her biyolo\u011fun, m\u00fcrekkebi \u015f\u00f6yle ya da b\u00f6yle ama \u0131srarla yalam\u0131\u015f herkesin okumas\u0131 gereken bir ba\u015fyap\u0131t.<\/strong><\/p>\n

48) 1986. The political economy of hybrid corn (J. P. Berlan ile birlikte). Monthly Rev.<\/em> 38: 35-47.<\/p>\n

IQ ele\u015ftirisi<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

49) 1986. Education and Class<\/em> (M. Schiff ile birlikte). Oxford. Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n

Okullarda verilen e\u011fitimi kavrama ve kabul edebilme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6\u011frenciler aras\u0131nda ne gibi \u201cdo\u011fal\u201d farklar vard\u0131r? Dahas\u0131 bu farklar IQ gibi \u201czek\u00e2 \u00f6l\u00e7en\u201d indeksler ile say\u0131salla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilirler mi? Lewontin\u2019in ortak yazar oldu\u011fu bu kitapta, e\u011fitimsel kavray\u0131\u015f farklar\u0131n\u0131n ve bu farklar\u0131n IQ ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclen bi\u00e7iminin genetik farklar d\u00fczeyine ta\u015f\u0131namayaca\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6steriliyor. Kald\u0131 ki, IQ\u2019nun \u00f6l\u00e7t\u00fc\u011f\u00fc s\u00f6ylenen \u015fey, keskin \u201cdo\u011fal s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131\u201d olan biyolojik farklar olmak yerine, bir e\u011fitim sisteminde i\u00e7erilen ve genellikle o sistemin haz\u0131rland\u0131\u011f\u0131 toplumun ideolojik ve sosyal kabullerine uyma d\u00fczeyi oldu\u011funu da anl\u0131yoruz. Kitaptaki analitik \u00e7er\u00e7eve ve IQ ele\u015ftirisi Lewontin taraf\u0131ndan uzun zamand\u0131r geli\u015ftirilen ve s\u0131cak tart\u0131\u015fmalar yaratan arg\u00fcmanlar b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcne dayan\u0131yor. E\u011fer bug\u00fcn IQ ciddi bilimsel tart\u0131\u015fmalarda ba\u015fvurulmayan, arkaik bir arg\u00fcman olarak sorumlu akademik g\u00fcndemin d\u0131\u015f\u0131na itilmi\u015fse bunun Lewontin\u2019e (ve belirli oranda da S. J. Gould\u2019a) bor\u00e7lu olundu\u011funu vurgulamak yanl\u0131\u015f olmayacakt\u0131r.\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

50) 1986. Breeder\u2019s right and patenting of life forms (J. P. Berlan ile birlikte). Nature<\/em> 322: 785-788.<\/p>\n

51) 1988. On measures of gametic disequilibrium. Genetics<\/em> 120: 849-852.<\/p>\n

Bu makale, genel okur ve bilimci i\u00e7in hayli teknik olmakla birlikte, evrimsel ve istatistiksel geneti\u011fin a\u011f\u0131r dilinin kullan\u0131larak, yine bu matematiksel dilin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 soyut, pratik amaca uygun -ancak ger\u00e7ek durumlara uygunlu\u011fu ku\u015fkulu- model dizayn\u0131na yap\u0131lan ele\u015ftiriyi i\u00e7ermekte. Makalede, birlikte kal\u0131t\u0131lan genlerin evrimle\u015fmesini \u00f6l\u00e7en bir parametreye ili\u015fkin \u00e7e\u015fitli istatistiksel hesaplardan birinin \u201cher durumda evrensel olan, populasyon tarihinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z\u201d bir ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131 olarak sunulmas\u0131ndaki yanl\u0131\u015fl\u0131k ortaya konuyor. Makalenin bir ba\u015fka g\u00fczelli\u011fi, evrensel ve tarihsiz oldu\u011fu iddia edilen ilgili parametre hesab\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131n, Lewontin\u2019in 1964 y\u0131l\u0131nda ortaya koydu\u011fu orijinal kendi ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 olmas\u0131. Ancak burada Lewontin, bu ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131n\u0131n orijinal (kendi) kurgusundaki do\u011frulu\u011fa de\u011fil, onun ba\u011flam ve olumdan kopuk bi\u00e7imdeki yeni matematiksel vurgusuna kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor.\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

52) 1989. Inferring the number of evolutionary events from DNA coding sequence differences. Mol. Biol. Evol.<\/em> 6 (1): 15-32.<\/p>\n

Adli su\u00e7lamada DNA kan\u0131t\u0131na ili\u015fkin uyar\u0131lar<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

53) 1991. Population genetics problems in forensic DNA typing (D. L. Hartl ile birlikte). Science<\/em> 254: 1745-1750.<\/p>\n

DNA kan\u0131t\u0131 kullan\u0131larak adli su\u00e7lamada bulunulurken, \u00f6nceleri, populasyon geneti\u011finin kurallar\u0131 yeterli derinlikte uygulanmamaktayd\u0131. Mahkemelerde kullan\u0131lacak DNA kan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n hangi etnik grup ilgisi yo\u011fun tart\u0131\u015fma konusu olmaktayd\u0131. Bu makalede Lewontin ve Daniel Hartl uygun populasyon genetik tan\u0131mlama konusunda \u00f6nemli uyar\u0131larda bulunmaktad\u0131r. Basit\u00e7e siyah, beyaz ya da hispanik diye veri taban\u0131 olu\u015fturman\u0131n ard\u0131ndaki bilimsel -\u00e7o\u011fu kez ideolojik \u00f6nyarg\u0131lara dayanan- yanl\u0131\u015flar vurgulanmaktad\u0131r. Populasyonlar\u0131n homojen tekil s\u0131n\u0131flar bi\u00e7iminde tan\u0131mlanamayaca\u011f\u0131, b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fckl\u00fc (homojen) oldu\u011fu iddia edilen bir k\u00fclt\u00fcrel-demografik kategorinin asl\u0131nda pek \u00e7ok karma\u015f\u0131k alt kategorilere (alt-populasyonlara) ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fi y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki klasik populasyon genetik vurgu, adli konularda DNA kan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n yorumlanmas\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan burada ele al\u0131nmaktad\u0131r ve konunun klasikleri aras\u0131ndad\u0131r.\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

54) 1997. Genetics, plant breeding and patents: conceptual contradictions and practical problems in protecting biological innovation (M. De Miranda Santos ile birlikte). Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter<\/em> 112: 1-8.<\/p>\n

So\u011fuk Sava\u015f s\u0131ras\u0131nda Amerikan \u00fcniversiteleri<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

55) 1997. The Cold War and the transformation of the Academy. The Cold War and the University<\/em> Vol 1., syf. 1-34. New York: The New Press.<\/p>\n

1997\u2019de yay\u0131mlanan ve T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\u2019ye de \u00e7evrilmi\u015f bu \u00f6nemli kitab\u0131n yazarlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda, Noam Chomsky, Howard Zinn, Immanuel Wallerstein gibi a\u011f\u0131r toplar ve radikal entelekt\u00fceller de bulunmaktad\u0131r. So\u011fuk Sava\u015f\u2019\u0131n Amerika\u2019daki \u00fcniversite hayat\u0131n\u0131 nas\u0131l etkiledi\u011finin de\u011fi\u015fik ba\u015fl\u0131klarda i\u015flendi\u011fi kitab\u0131n ilk makalesi Lewontin\u2019e aittir ve Lewontin bu makalede; So\u011fuk Sava\u015f s\u0131ras\u0131nda Amerikan \u00fcniversitelerinin nas\u0131l \u00f6nemli ara\u015ft\u0131rma kurumlar\u0131 haline geldi\u011fini, o d\u00f6neme dek mali bak\u0131mdan ve itibar a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan s\u0131radan olan \u00f6\u011fretim \u00fcyelerinin, So\u011fuk Sava\u015f\u2019la birlikte, itibar ve mali iktidar sahiplerine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ferek \u00f6nemli n\u00fcfuz kazand\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Makalenin bir di\u011fer \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 yan\u0131, Amerikan devletinin zorlamas\u0131 ya da etkin planlamas\u0131 ile de\u011fil, akademiklerin iktidar m\u00fccadelesi sonucunda \u00fcniversitelere \u00f6zg\u00fc ekonomi-politik bir sistemin olu\u015ftu\u011funun vurgulanmas\u0131d\u0131r.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Richard Lewontin kimdir?<\/strong><\/h4>\n

Richard Lewontin, 1929 New York do\u011fumlu bir Amerikal\u0131 kuramsal ve deneysel evrimsel genetik\u00e7i, evrime ve biyolojiye ili\u015fkin bi\u00adlim felsefesini derinden etkilemi\u015f radikal bir bilim\u00adci. Lewontin\u2019in evrimsel biyolojiye katk\u0131s\u0131n\u0131, belki de en kestirme bi\u00e7imiyle, \u00e7ok y\u00f6nl\u00fc ve derinlemesine ele\u015ftirel \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Teknik a\u00e7\u0131dan bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda; do\u011fal se\u00e7ilimin -organizman\u0131n ve onun bir i\u015flevi olan \u00e7evresinin karma\u015f\u0131k bir \u00fcr\u00fc\u00adn\u00fc oldu\u011funa dair- se\u00e7ilim birimleri kavram\u0131n\u0131 ge\u00adli\u015ftirmi\u015f, \u00e7ok genli-etkile\u015fimsel-dinamik evrimle\u015f\u00adme modelini art\u0131k klasikle\u015fmi\u015f matematiksel bi\u00e7imleriyle ortaya koymu\u015f, 1960\u2019lar\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda protein elektroforezini evrimsel aksiyomlara uygu\u00adlayarak evrimsel biyolojinin y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015f, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n pek \u00e7ok yerinden gelip kendisiyle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan \u00f6\u011frencileri ve meslekta\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n birikimlerinde mo\u00addern molek\u00fcler evrimsel geneti\u011fin yap\u0131 ta\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturmu\u015f birinci s\u0131n\u0131f bir bilimci Lewontin.<\/p>\n

Harvard \u00dcniversitesi Biyoloji B\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc\u2019nden mezun ol\u00adduktan sonra Columbia \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nde Darwin sonras\u0131 en etkili evrimsel biyologlardan T. H. Dobzhansky\u2019nin \u00f6\u011frencisi olarak y\u00fcksek lisans ve doktoras\u0131n\u0131 alm\u0131\u015f olan Lewontin\u2019in, evrimsel gene\u00adtik, pop\u00fclasyon biyolojisi ve evrim felsefesine kat\u00adk\u0131lar\u0131 devrimci nitelikte olmu\u015ftur (1). Lewontin\u2019in en \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerinden belki de en ba\u015fl\u0131cas\u0131, kuram\u00adsal bilgisini \u201csaf bilimsel\u201d oldu\u011fu iddia edilen konu\u00adlar\u0131n ideolojik ve toplumsal ele\u015ftirisini yapmakta kullanarak nitelikli bir diyalektik metodoloji geli\u015f\u00adtirmi\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Lewontin\u2019in buradaki en dikkati \u00e7eken taraf\u0131, karma\u015f\u0131k ve ister istemez elit bir kitle\u00adyi hedefleyen bir bilim dilini \u00e7\u00f6zerken, b\u00f6yle bir di\u00adlin imk\u00e2nlar\u0131n\u0131 {\u00f6rne\u011fin matematiksel evrimsel ge\u00adneti\u011fi) ve pop\u00fcler bilim \u00e7er\u00e7evesini kullanarak, da\u00adha derinde yatan ideolojik ve toplumsal \u00f6nyarg\u0131la\u00adr\u0131, hem uzman i\u00e7in hem de merakl\u0131 okur i\u00e7in ayn\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131kta ortaya koyabilmesidir. Son otuz y\u0131ldan geriye bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, temelinde 1974\u2019te yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change <\/em>adl\u0131 klasi\u011fin bulundu\u011fu dinamik bir s\u00fcreci Lewontin a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan tan\u0131mlamak yanl\u0131\u015f olmayacakt\u0131r; organizmalar\u0131 di\u00adnamik ve ayaklar\u0131 yere basan bir holizm perspekti\u00adfiyle ele almas\u0131, \u00f6zellikle gen ve \u00e7evre etkile\u015fimleri\u00adnin Kartezyen indirgemecili\u011fin dar anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131ndaki etkin rol\u00fc, sosyobiyoloji uydur\u00admacas\u0131n\u0131n Stephen Jay Gould\u2019la birlikte ipli\u011finin pazara \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmas\u0131, zek\u00e2 tan\u0131m\u0131 i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan IQ kavramla\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131n genetik ve biyolojik a\u00e7\u0131dan kof oldu\u011funun ortaya konmas\u0131ndaki birincil rol\u00fc, insan \u0131rklar\u0131n\u0131n genetik a\u00e7\u0131dan anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6s\u00adterilmesi. \u0130\u015fte Lewontin\u2019in son otuz y\u0131la damgas\u0131n\u0131 vurmu\u015f katk\u0131lar\u0131ndan belli ba\u015fl\u0131lar\u0131.<\/p>\n

Lewontin ay\u00adr\u0131ca, y\u00fcksek nitelikli bir pop\u00fcler bilim yazar\u0131. An\u00adcak onun bilimi pop\u00fclerle\u015ftirmesi, bilinen anlam\u0131n\u00adda oldu\u011fu gibi, karma\u015f\u0131k ve uzman i\u015fi konular\u0131n anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r hale getirilmesi de\u011fil, neredeyse bir din olarak alg\u0131lanan kaba pozitivist bilim alg\u0131s\u0131na ili\u015f\u00adkin ideolojik fonun evrimsel biyoloji ve geneti\u011fin somut, dogmatize edilmeyen olgu zenginli\u011fiyle a\u00e7\u0131k edildi\u011fi bir pop\u00fclerle\u015ftirmedir. Evrim-bilim-kar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan oldu\u011fu kadar, akademik rutin\u00adlerin in\u015fa etti\u011fi g\u00fcvenli kariyer basamaklar\u0131n\u0131 t\u0131r\u00admanan ve \u201csaf bilim\u201d yaparak \u201cnesnelliklerini\u201d ko\u00adruyan huzur i\u00e7indeki akademisyenler taraf\u0131ndan da pek sevilmeyen Richard Lewontin, evrimsel biyo\u00adloji ve genetikten felsefe ve sosyal bilimlere uzanan pek \u00e7ok alanda belirleyici ve etkili olmaya devam etmektedir.<\/p>\n

Yukar\u0131da an\u0131\u00adlan klasik kitab\u0131 ve \u00fcretti\u011fi y\u00fczlerce makale d\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u00adda, Human Diversity, Dialectical Biologist, Not in Our Genes, Biology and Ideology, It Ain\u2019t Necessarily So: The Dream of The Human Genome and Other Illusions, Education and Class <\/em>gibi yar\u0131 po\u00adp\u00fcler kitaplar\u0131n yazar\u0131 ve e\u015f-yazarlar\u0131ndand\u0131r. Yine Lewontin, belki de en itibarl\u0131 genetik ders kitab\u0131 olan Introduction to Genetic Analysis<\/em>\u2019in 1976\u2019daki ilk bask\u0131s\u0131ndan bug\u00fcne yap\u0131lan geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f t\u00fcm bask\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n yazarlar\u0131ndan biridir. S\u00f6z\u00fc yak\u0131n za\u00adman \u00f6nce yitirdi\u011fimiz b\u00fcy\u00fck evrimci John Maynard Smith\u2019in, arkada\u015f\u0131 Richard Lewontin i\u00e7in yazd\u0131klar\u0131yla bitirelim: \u201cRichard Lewontin\u2019in bili\u00adme katk\u0131s\u0131 yaln\u0131zca evrimsel teori ve molek\u00fcler varyasyon \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardan ve onunla \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f pek \u00e7ok gen\u00e7 bilimciyi etkilemesinden iba\u00adret de\u011fildir; o yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bilim ile ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z d\u00fcn\u00adya aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki hakk\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye de bizi sevketmi\u015ftir.\u201d (2)<\/p>\n

(Ergi Deniz \u00d6zsoy\u2019un T\u00dcB\u0130TAK Bilim Kitaplar\u0131 b\u00fcnyesinde \u00e7\u0131kan R. Lewontin\u2019in \u00dc\u00e7l\u00fc Sarmal adl\u0131 kitab\u0131na yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00d6ns\u00f6z\u2019den al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.)<\/em><\/p>\n

D\u0130PNOTLAR<\/strong><\/p>\n

1) Lewontin onuruna son 7 y\u0131lda \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan, \u00e7o\u011fu d\u00fcnya \u00e7ap\u0131ndaki \u00e7ok say\u0131da \u00f6\u011frencisi ve meslekta\u015f\u0131n\u0131n katk\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7eren kitaplar: Evolutio\u00adnary Genetics: From MolecuJes to Morphology <\/em>(Cambridge Univer\u00adsity Press, 2000), Thinking About Evolution: Historical, Philosophi-cal, and Poli\u00fccal Perspectives <\/em>(Cambridge University Press, 2001), The Evolution of Population Biology <\/em>(Cambridge University Press, 2004).<\/p>\n

2) John Maynard-Smith, \u201cAttltudes to animal behaviour,\u201d Evolutio-na\u0131y Genetics: From MoJecules to Morphology <\/em>(R. S. Singh, C. B. Krimbas (edit\u00f6rler), Cambridge Universtty Press, 2000) i\u00e7inde; s.628-641.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Richard Lewontin k\u00fclliyat\u0131, yakla\u015f\u0131k 400 civar\u0131nda; evrimsel biyolojik makaleler, kitaplar, kitap ele\u015ftirileri, ekonomi-politik makaleler, yar\u0131-pop\u00fcler makaleler ve polemiklerden olu\u015fan devasa bir \u00fcretimi kaps\u0131yor. Lewontin\u2019in klasik ve devrim niteli\u011findeki evrimsel biyolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131, kitaplar\u0131n\u0131 okuyucuyu ileri okumalar i\u00e7in y\u00f6nlendirebilecek oranda g\u00f6steren bir se\u00e7ilmi\u015f bibliyografya haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyoruz. Richard Lewontin i\u00e7in a\u00e7\u0131klamal\u0131 bibliyografya haz\u0131rlaman\u0131n zorlu iki y\u00f6n\u00fc var. Birincisi, […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":67,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[85,32],"tags":[465,200,292],"class_list":["post-8611","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-47-sayi","category-evrim","tag-bilim-felsefesi","tag-evrim","tag-genetik"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t