{"id":9208,"date":"2009-02-01T23:44:28","date_gmt":"2009-02-01T21:44:28","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/109.232.216.219\/~bilimvegelecek\/?p=9208"},"modified":"2017-05-20T22:26:13","modified_gmt":"2017-05-20T19:26:13","slug":"adim-adim-bilimsel-devrim","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bilimvegelecek.com.tr\/index.php\/2009\/02\/01\/adim-adim-bilimsel-devrim","title":{"rendered":"Ad\u0131m ad\u0131m Bilimsel Devrim"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong>B\u00f6ylece, Yunan felsefesinin b\u00fcy\u00fck kurucular\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f tarz\u0131na, kum zerreciklerinden g\u00fcne\u015flere, do\u011fan\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn, ezel\u00ee ve ebed\u00ee ha\u00adyata geli\u015f ve gidi\u015fte, kesintisiz bir ak\u0131mda, bitmek bil\u00admez bir hareket ve de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7inde varl\u0131\u011fa sahip oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne, bir kere daha d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015f oluyoruz. Sadece esas\u00adl\u0131 bir fark var: Yunanl\u0131larda parlak bir sezgi olan \u015fey \u015fimdi bizim meselemizde, deneyle peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f kesin bir bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n sonucudur ve daha kesin, daha a\u00e7\u0131k bi\u00e7imde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. <\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z makale, Bilimsel Sosyalizmin kurucular\u0131ndan Friedrich Engels\u2019in Do\u011fan\u0131n Diyalekti\u011fi<\/em> adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n \u201cGiri\u015f\u201d b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Sol Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u00c7eviren: Arif Gelen, 1. bask\u0131, Kas\u0131m 1970, s.31-44). Kendisi de bilimsel devrimin bir halkas\u0131 olan Engels\u2019in do\u011fa bilimlerindeki b\u00fcy\u00fck at\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n 400 y\u0131ll\u0131k ser\u00fcvenini toplumsal geli\u015fmelerle paralelli\u011fini kurarak ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu de\u011ferli metnin ilgi ile okunaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyoruz. Daha \u00f6nce okumu\u015f olanlar i\u00e7in de bir an\u0131msatma olacak. Metni okurken, Engels\u2019in Do\u011fan\u0131n Diyalekti\u011fi<\/em> adl\u0131 eseri, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n son \u00e7eyre\u011finde (1873\u2019ten 1886\u2019ya kadar olan s\u00fcre i\u00e7inde) yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, yani o d\u00f6nemin bilimsel d\u00fczeyi ile s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 oldu\u011funu dikkate almak gerekir. Ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131, spotu ve araba\u015fl\u0131klar\u0131 biz koyduk.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Antikitenin parlak do\u011fa felsefesinin sezgilerine ve Araplar\u0131n genellikle bir sonuca varmadan yok olup gitmi\u015f tek t\u00fck fakat son derece \u00f6nemli bulu\u015flar\u0131na ra\u011f\u00admen, do\u011fada, tek ba\u015f\u0131na bilimsel, sistematik ve \u00e7ok yan\u00adl\u0131 bir geli\u015fme sa\u011flayan modern ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n tarihi, b\u00fct\u00fcn yak\u0131n tarih gibi, \u00fczerimize o d\u00f6nemde bir talihsizlik ola\u00adrak \u00e7\u00f6ken ve biz Almanlar\u0131n Reformasyon, Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n R\u00f6nesans, \u0130talyanlar\u0131n ise Cinquecento<\/strong> dedikleri o b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131rla ba\u015flar. Ne var ki, bu adlar\u0131n hi\u00e7biri, o \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r\u0131 tam tam\u0131na anlatmamaktad\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nem, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikin\u00adci yar\u0131s\u0131nda zirveye ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Krall\u0131k, kentlilerin de deste\u011fiyle, feodal soylulu\u011fun iktidar\u0131n\u0131 y\u0131km\u0131\u015f, temelde milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fe dayanan b\u00fcy\u00fck monar\u015fileri kurmu\u015ftur. Bu monar\u015filer i\u00e7inde modern Avrupa uluslar\u0131 ve modern burjuva toplumu geli\u015fmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hen\u00fcz kentlilerle soylular birbiriyle sava\u015f\u0131rken, Alman K\u00f6yl\u00fc Sava\u015f\u0131, sah\u00adneye sadece isyan halindeki k\u00f6yl\u00fcy\u00fc -art\u0131k bunun yeni taraf\u0131 yoktu- de\u011fil, fakat onlar\u0131n ard\u0131ndan, ellerinde k\u0131\u00adz\u0131l bayraklar, dudaklar\u0131nda mallar\u0131n ortak sahipli\u011fi iste\u00ad\u011fi olan modern proletaryan\u0131n ilk \u00f6rneklerini \u00e7\u0131kararak, bir k\u00e2hin gibi, gelecekteki s\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015fma i\u015faret etmi\u015ftir. Bizans\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden kalan el yazmalar\u0131nda ve Roma\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6renlerinden (harabelerinden) \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan heykellerde, \u015fa\u015f\u0131rm\u0131\u015f Bat\u0131ya yepyeni bir d\u00fcnya a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131. Bu, eski Yunan d\u00fcnyas\u0131yd\u0131. Bu d\u00fcnyan\u0131n parlak bi\u00e7imlerinin \u00f6n\u00fcnde Or\u00adta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n hayaletleri ortadan silinip gitmi\u015fti; \u0130talya\u2019da ha\u00adyal edilemeyecek bir sanat do\u011fdu. Bu sanat klasik anti\u00adkitenin yans\u0131mas\u0131 gibiydi ve sonra hi\u00e7bir zaman, bir daha o sanata eri\u015filemedi. \u0130talya\u2019da, Fransa\u2019da ve Alman\u00adya\u2019da yepyeni bir edebiyat, ilk modern edebiyat ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131; bundan k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra \u0130ngiliz ve \u0130spanyol edebiyat\u0131n\u0131n klasik d\u00f6nemi s\u00f6k\u00fcn etti. Eski orbis terrarum<\/strong>\u2019un s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 a\u015f\u0131ld\u0131, d\u00fcnya ilk defa olarak ger\u00e7ekten ke\u015ffe\u00addildi ve daha sonraki d\u00fcnya ticareti ile eli\u015f\u00e7ili\u011finden ima\u00adl\u00e2t sanayisine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn temelleri at\u0131ld\u0131, imal\u00e2t sana\u00adyisi de modern b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00fcretim yapan sanayinin ba\u015f\u00adlang\u0131c\u0131 oldu. Kilisenin insan zihnindeki diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc y\u0131k\u0131ld\u0131. Bir yandan Cermen soyundan gelenler kilise\u00adnin diktat\u00f6rl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kald\u0131r\u0131p atarak Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kabul ederken, \u00f6te yandan Latin soyundan gelenler aras\u0131nda, Araplardan devral\u0131nan ve yeni yeni ke\u015ffedilen Yunan felsefesi taraf\u0131ndan beslenen \u00f6zg\u00fcr d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 gittik\u00e7e daha fazla k\u00f6k salarak, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l materyalizminin geli\u015fini haz\u0131rlad\u0131.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Devrimin devleri<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Bu, o zamana kadar insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc en b\u00fcy\u00fck ilerletici devrimdi; o, \u00f6yle bir zamand\u0131 ki, devlere gereksiniyordu ve bu devleri yaratt\u0131 – d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce, h\u0131rs ve ka\u00adrakter g\u00fcc\u00fcnde, evrensellikte ve \u00f6\u011frenmede devler. Mo\u00addern burjuva iktidar\u0131n\u0131 kuran insanlar, burjuva s\u0131n\u0131rla\u00admalar\u0131ndan ba\u015fka herhangi bir s\u0131n\u0131rlamayla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya de\u011fildiler. Tam tersine, zaman\u0131n ser\u00fcvenci niteli\u011fi onlar\u0131 az veya \u00e7ok etkiliyordu. O zaman ya\u015fayan \u00f6nem\u00adli ki\u015filer aras\u0131nda, geni\u015f \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde seyahat etmemi\u015f, d\u00f6rt ya da be\u015f dilden az\u0131n\u0131 bilen, bir\u00e7ok alanda parlamam\u0131\u015f olan\u0131n\u0131 bulmak g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckle m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fc. Leonardo da Vinci sadece b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ressam de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir matematik\u00e7i, mekanik\u00e7i ve m\u00fchendisti. Fizi\u011fin de\u011fi\u015fik dallar\u0131 \u00f6nemli bulu\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 ona bor\u00e7ludur. Albrecht D\u00fcrer, ressam, oymac\u0131, heykelt\u0131ra\u015f ve mimard\u0131. Ayr\u0131ca is\u00adtihk\u00e2m yapma konusunda bir\u00e7ok fikirleri kendinde toplayan bir sistem bulmu\u015ftu. \u00c7ok sonralar\u0131. Montalembert ve modern Alman istihk\u00e2mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan onun fikir\u00adleri yeniden ele al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Machiavelli bir devlet adam\u0131, tarih\u00e7i, \u015fair ve ayn\u0131 zamanda modern zamanlar\u0131n dikka\u00adte de\u011fer ilk asker\u00ee yazar\u0131yd\u0131. Luther, sadece kilisedeki Augean seyislerini temizlemekle kalmam\u0131\u015f, Alman dilin\u00addeki Augean seyislerini de silip s\u00fcp\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc; modern Al\u00adman nesrini yaratm\u0131\u015f, 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n Marseillaise\u2019i haline gelen ve zafere duyulan g\u00fcvenle dolup ta\u015fan il\u00e2hinin s\u00f6zlerini yazm\u0131\u015f, m\u00fczi\u011fini bestelemi\u015fti (1). O zaman\u0131n kahra\u00admanlar\u0131 hen\u00fcz, onlardan sonrakilerde tek yanl\u0131l\u0131\u011fa yol a\u00e7an s\u0131n\u0131rlay\u0131c\u0131 etkilerini s\u0131k s\u0131k g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc\u00adn\u00fcn tutsa\u011f\u0131 olmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Fakat onlar\u0131n karakteristi\u011fi, \u00f6zellikle, hemen hepsinin ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcre i\u00e7inde eylemleri\u00adni \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f hareketler i\u00e7inde pratik m\u00fccadelede s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00adm\u00fc\u015f olmalar\u0131d\u0131r; cephelerini belli etmi\u015fler, kimi konu\u00ad\u015farak ve yazarak, kimi k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7la, kimi de her ikisiyle bir\u00adlikte sava\u015fa girmi\u015ftir. Onlar\u0131 tam adam yapan karakter g\u00fcc\u00fc ve taml\u0131\u011f\u0131 budur. Parmaklar\u0131n\u0131n ucunu dahi yak\u00admak istemeyen ihtiyatk\u00e2r okumu\u015flar ve ikinci \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc s\u0131radan insanlar, bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Do\u011fa bilimlerinin b\u00fcy\u00fck at\u0131l\u0131m\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

O s\u0131ralarda do\u011fa bilimi de genel bir devrimin i\u00e7inde geli\u015fmi\u015f ve bilimin kendisi de devrimci bir bilim olmu\u015ftur; ger\u00e7ekten bu bilim, m\u00fccadelede kendi ya\u015fama hakk\u0131n\u0131 kazanmak zorundayd\u0131. Modern felsefenin kendi\u00adleriyle birlikte ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130talyanlar\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra do\u00ad\u011fa bilimi de Engizisyonun zindanlar\u0131nda ve kaz\u0131klar\u0131nda \u015fehitlerini vermi\u015ftir. Ve do\u011fan\u0131n serbest\u00e7e incelenmesine kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmakta Protestanlar\u0131n Katoliklere bakarak kraldan \u00e7ok kralc\u0131 kesilmeleri ilgi \u00e7ekicidir. Calvin, Servetus\u2019un kan dola\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 bulma noktas\u0131na geldi\u011fini anlay\u0131nca onu, iki saat canl\u0131 canl\u0131 ate\u015fte k\u0131zartm\u0131\u015f, yakt\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; Engizisyon, en az\u0131ndan, Giordano Bruno\u2019yu hi\u00e7 de\u011filse yakarak tatmin olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

Copernicus, \u00fcrkek de olsa, do\u011fa meselelerinde, kilise otoritesine, \u00f6l\u00fcm yata\u011f\u0131nda iken yay\u0131nlanan \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fcz ese\u00adriyle sert bir \u015famar indirmi\u015f, do\u011fa biliminin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z\u00adl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 il\u00e2n eden bu devrimci hareket ile, Luther\u2019in Papa\u00adl\u0131k Buyru\u011funu yakmas\u0131 sanki tekrarlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (2). Do\u011fa biliminin teolojiden kurtulu\u015fu bu tarihten ba\u015flar, buna ra\u011fmen, baz\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 iddialar g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar s\u00fcregel\u00admi\u015ftir ve bir\u00e7ok zihinden \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f de\u011fildir. Ne var ki, o za\u00admandan beri bilimlerin geli\u015fmesi dev ad\u0131mlarla olmu\u015ftur ve denebilir ki, hareket noktas\u0131ndan itibaren (zaman i\u00e7indeki) mesafenin karesi oran\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7 kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bundan sonra, organik maddenin en y\u00fcce \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olan insan bey\u00adni i\u00e7in, hareket yasas\u0131n\u0131n, de\u011fi\u015fen \u015fartlar alt\u0131nda de\u011feri\u00adni yitirmedi\u011fi, inorganik madde i\u00e7in ise bunun tersi ol\u00addu\u011fu, sanki d\u00fcnyaya g\u00f6sterilecekti.<\/p>\n

Do\u011fa biliminin bu ilk d\u00f6neminde temel mesele, o an\u00adda elde bulunan malzemeyi iyice \u00f6\u011frenmekti. Bir\u00e7ok alan\u00adda, i\u015fe en ba\u015ftan ba\u015flanmas\u0131 zorunluydu. Antikite Euclid ve Ptolemy\u2019nin g\u00fcne\u015f sistemini, Araplar ondal\u0131k sistemini, ilk cebir bilgilerini, modern say\u0131lar\u0131 ve simyay\u0131 miras b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131; H\u0131ristiyan Orta\u00e7a\u011f ise hi\u00e7bir \u015fey\u2026 Bu durumda en ilkel do\u011fa bilimi olan yer ve g\u00f6k cisimleri mekani\u011fi, ve onunla birlikte, bu bilimin yard\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131 olan matematik y\u00f6ntemlerin bulunmas\u0131 ve geli\u015ftirilmesi, is\u00adter istemez ilk s\u0131ray\u0131 ald\u0131. Bu alanda b\u00fcy\u00fck i\u015fler ba\u015fa\u00adr\u0131ld\u0131. Newton\u2019la Linnaeus\u2019un ki\u015filikleriyle karakterize et\u00adtikleri bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda, bu bilim dallar\u0131n\u0131n belli bir a\u015famaya getirildi\u011fini g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Belli ba\u015fl\u0131 matematik y\u00f6ntemlerin, \u00f6zellikle Descartes ile analitik geometrinin, Napier ile logaritman\u0131n, Leibniz ve muhtemelen Newton ile diferansiyel ve entegral hesaplar\u0131n temelleri at\u0131ld\u0131. Kat\u0131 cisimler mekani\u011fi ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde de\u011ferini yitir\u00admedi ve bu mekani\u011fin temel yasalar\u0131 bir kere daha ay\u00add\u0131nlat\u0131ld\u0131. Nihayet g\u00fcne\u015f sistemi astronomisinde Kepler, gezegen hareketi yasalar\u0131n\u0131 buldu ve Newton, maddenin hareketi genel yasalar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan, bunlar\u0131 form\u00fcle etti. Do\u011fa biliminin \u00f6teki dallan, bu ge\u00e7ici sonu\u00e7tan dahi uzak kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ancak d\u00f6nemin sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru, s\u0131v\u0131 ve gaz cisimler mekani\u011fi ele al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 (3). Fizik, hen\u00fcz ilk ad\u0131m\u00adlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6tesine ge\u00e7mi\u015f de\u011fildi. Optik bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndayd\u0131. Opti\u011fin istisna\u00ee geli\u015fimi, astronominin pratik gereksin\u00admelerinden ileri gelmekteydi. Kimya, filojistik kuram sayesinde (4), ilk defa olarak simyadan kurtulmaktayd\u0131. Jeo\u00adloji, hen\u00fcz mineralojinin ilkel (embriyonik) a\u015famas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6tesine ge\u00e7ememi\u015fti; bu durumda hen\u00fcz paleontoloji di\u00adye bir \u015fey var olamazd\u0131. Nihayet biyoloji alan\u0131nda, esas\u00adl\u0131 zihin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 hen\u00fcz, sadece botanik ve zoolojik de\u00ad\u011fil, fakat ayn\u0131 zamanda anatomik ve fizyolojik geni\u015f bil\u00adgileri toplama ve ilk eleme noktas\u0131ndayd\u0131. Hen\u00fcz de\u011fi\u015fik hayat bi\u00e7imlerine, bunlar\u0131n co\u011frafyaya, iklime vb. ba\u011fl\u0131 da\u011f\u0131l\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ve varl\u0131k \u015fartlar\u0131n\u0131n incelenmesine ili\u015fkin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flere rastlamak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclemezdi. Bu alanda sadece botanik ve zooloji a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 bir taml\u0131\u011fa ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve bunu Linnaeus\u2019a bor\u00e7luydu.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Ta\u015fla\u015fm\u0131\u015f do\u011fa g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Fakat bu d\u00f6nemi \u00f6zellikle karakterize eden \u015fey, ken\u00addine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir genel g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc geli\u015ftirmesidir. Bu genel g\u00f6\u00adr\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn temel noktas\u0131 do\u011fan\u0131n mutlak de\u011fi\u015fmezli\u011fi<\/strong> anla\u00ady\u0131\u015f\u0131 idi. Do\u011fa, varl\u0131\u011fa hangi \u015fekilde kavu\u015fmu\u015f olursa olsun, bir kere var olduktan sonra, varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 devam ettik\u00e7e oldu\u011fu gibi kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta esrarl\u0131 bir \u201cilk g\u00fc\u00e7\u201dle harekete ge\u00e7irilen gezegenler ve onlar\u0131n uydular\u0131, her \u015fey sona erinceye kadar, \u00f6nceden kararla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f elips\u00adleri \u00fczerinde ebediyen d\u00f6nmeye devam ederler. Y\u0131ld\u0131z\u00adlar, \u201cevrensel bir \u00e7ekim\u201din etkisi sebebiyle, biri \u00f6tekini tutarak, bulunduklar\u0131 yerde sabit ve hareketsiz olarak ebediyen kal\u0131rlar. D\u00fcnya ezelden beri, ya da yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n ilk g\u00fcn\u00fcnden bu yana (duruma g\u00f6re) de\u011fi\u015fmeksizin ayn\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130nsan eliyle yap\u0131lan de\u011fi\u015fiklik ve nakiller d\u0131\u00ad\u015f\u0131nda, bug\u00fcn\u00fcn \u201cbe\u015f k\u0131ta\u201ds\u0131 eskiden beri mevcuttu, bu k\u0131talar ayn\u0131 da\u011flara, ayn\u0131 vadilere, ayn\u0131 \u0131rmaklara, ayn\u0131 iklime, ayn\u0131 bitki ve canl\u0131lara, eskiden beri her zaman sa\u00adhip olmu\u015ftu. Bitki ve hayvan t\u00fcrleri var olu\u015flar\u0131nda her zaman i\u00e7in yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131; t\u00fcr, s\u00fcrekli olarak kendi ben\u00adzerini \u00fcretmi\u015fti ve yeni t\u00fcrlerin \u015furada ya da burada, birbirine a\u015f\u0131lanma sonucunda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kabileceklerini ka\u00adbul etmekle Linnaeus \u00e7ok ileri gitmi\u015fti. \u0130nsanl\u0131k tarihinin zaman i\u00e7inde geli\u015fmesine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k do\u011fa tarihi i\u00e7in ancak mek\u00e2n i\u00e7inde bir a\u00e7\u0131lma tespit edilmi\u015fti. Do\u011fadaki b\u00fct\u00fcn de\u011fi\u015fiklikler, b\u00fct\u00fcn geli\u015fmeler reddediliyordu. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7\u00adta devrimci olan do\u011fa bilimi, birdenbire kendini, b\u00fct\u00fcn b\u00fct\u00fcn tutucu hale gelmi\u015f bir do\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda buluverdi. O do\u011fada bug\u00fcn dahi her \u015fey, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta nas\u0131l idiyse yine \u00f6yle idi ve her \u015fey, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n sonuna ya da ebediye\u00adte kadar, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta nas\u0131l idiyse \u00f6yle kalacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda do\u011fa bilimi, bilgide ve hatta eldeki malzemenin incelenmesinde Yunan antikitesinden daha \u00fcst\u00fcn bir d\u00fczeydeydi, ancak bu malzemenin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel kavranmas\u0131 yani genel do\u011fa g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc bak\u0131m\u0131ndan Yunan antikitesinin alt\u0131nda bulunuyordu. Yunan filozof\u00adlar\u0131 i\u00e7in d\u00fcnya asl\u0131nda kaostan \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, geli\u015fmi\u015f ve ha\u00adyata ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f bir \u015feydi. Ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z d\u00f6nemin do\u011fa bil\u00adginleri i\u00e7in ise d\u00fcnya kemikle\u015fmi\u015f, de\u011fi\u015fmez bir \u015feydi ve bunlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funa g\u00f6re de bir hamlede yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bilim hen\u00fcz teolojinin a\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7indeydi. Her yerde niha\u00ee sebebi, bizzat do\u011fan\u0131n kendisi taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131klanamayacak bir d\u0131\u015f g\u00fc\u00e7te ar\u0131yor, bir d\u0131\u015f g\u00fc\u00e7te buluyordu. E\u011fer Newton\u2019un b\u00fcy\u00fck bir azametle \u201cevrensel \u00e7ekim\u201d ad\u0131n\u0131 verdi\u011fi yer\u00e7ekimi, maddenin temel \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak an\u00adla\u015f\u0131l\u0131rsa, o takdirde, gezegenlerin y\u00f6r\u00fcngesini yaratan izah edilmemi\u015f te\u011fetvari g\u00fc\u00e7 nereden geliyordu? Say\u0131s\u0131z hayvan ve bitki t\u00fcrleri nas\u0131l \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131? Ve b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131n hepsinin \u00fcst\u00fcnde, ezelden beri mevcut olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kesin oldu\u011funa g\u00f6re, insan nas\u0131l ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131? B\u00fct\u00fcn bu t\u00fcr sorulara sadece do\u011fa bilimi, her \u015feyden sorumlu bir yarat\u0131c\u0131 yaparak cevap veriyordu. D\u00f6nemin ba\u015f\u0131nda Copernicus teolojiyi reddetmi\u015fti; Newton, bu d\u00f6nemi, il\u00e2h\u00ee bir ilk g\u00fc\u00e7 \u00f6nermesiyle kapatt\u0131. Bu do\u011fa biliminin ula\u015ft\u0131\u00ad\u011f\u0131 en y\u00fcksek genel fikir, do\u011fan\u0131n belli bir amaca g\u00f6re d\u00fc\u00adzenlendi\u011fi fikriydi. Wolff\u2019un bu y\u00fczeyde kalan teleoloji\u00adsine g\u00f6re kediler fare yemek i\u00e7in, fareler kediler taraf\u0131n\u00addan yenmek i\u00e7in ve b\u00fct\u00fcn do\u011fa, yarat\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n akl\u0131na tan\u0131k\u00adl\u0131k etmek i\u00e7in yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. O zaman\u0131n felsefesinin yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 en itibarl\u0131 i\u015f, kendisinin, \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 do\u011fa bilgisi tara\u00adf\u0131ndan yanl\u0131\u015f yola sapt\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na m\u00fcsaade etmemesi ve -Spinoza\u2019dan b\u00fcy\u00fck Frans\u0131z materyalistlerine kadar- d\u00fcnyay\u0131, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n kendisiyle a\u00e7\u0131klamakta direnmesi ve ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 yarg\u0131lara varmay\u0131 gelece\u011fin do\u011fa bilimine b\u0131rak\u00admas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/li>\n
  2. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n materyalistlerini de ben bu d\u00f6nem i\u00e7in\u00adde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorum. Zira onlar\u0131n elinde, yukarda belirtilenlerin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, kullanabilecekleri do\u011faya ili\u015fkin bilimsel malzeme bulunmuyordu. Kant\u2019\u0131n \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, on\u00adlar i\u00e7in bir s\u0131r olarak kald\u0131 ve Laplace onlardan \u00e7ok son\u00adra geldi (5). Unutmamal\u0131y\u0131z ki, bilimin geli\u015fmesiyle ya\u00adva\u015f yava\u015f elenmi\u015f olan, bu modas\u0131 ge\u00e7mi\u015f do\u011fa g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda tamamen egemen olmu\u015ftur (6) ve esas\u0131nda, bug\u00fcn dahi b\u00fct\u00fcn okullarda \u00f6\u011fretilir (7).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Kant ilk gedi\u011fi a\u00e7\u0131yor<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

    Bu ta\u015fla\u015fm\u0131\u015f do\u011fa g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde ilk gedik bir bilim ada\u00adm\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan de\u011fil, bir filozof taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 1755\u2019de Kant\u2019\u0131n Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels<\/em> adl\u0131 yap\u0131t\u0131 yay\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130lk g\u00fc\u00e7 sorunu orta\u00addan kald\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131; d\u00fcnya ve t\u00fcm g\u00fcne\u015f sistemi zaman i\u00e7inde hayata kavu\u015fan<\/strong> bir \u015fey olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu. E\u011fer do\u011fa bilginlerinin b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu, Newton\u2019un ifa\u00adde etti\u011fi, \u201cFizik, metafizikten sak\u0131n!\u201d (8) uyar\u0131s\u0131 \u00fczerinde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmekten bir par\u00e7a daha az i\u011frenselerdi, Kant\u2019\u0131n bu tek parlak bulu\u015fundan sonu\u00e7lar \u00e7\u0131karmaya y\u00f6nelebilirler\u00addi ve b\u00f6ylece sonsuz sapmalardan ve yanl\u0131\u015f yolda harcan\u00adm\u0131\u015f b\u00fcy\u00fck bir zaman ve emek kayb\u0131ndan kendilerini ko\u00adrurlard\u0131. Zira Kant\u2019\u0131n bulu\u015fu, daha sonraki b\u00fct\u00fcn geli\u015f\u00admelerin hareket noktas\u0131n\u0131 kapsam\u0131na almaktayd\u0131. E\u011fer d\u00fcnya hayata kavu\u015fmu\u015f bir \u015fey ise, o takdirde d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u015fimdiki jeoloji, co\u011frafya ve iklim durumu, ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde bitkileri ve hayvanlar\u0131 da hayata kavu\u015fmu\u015f bir \u015fey olmak zorundayd\u0131; onun sadece mek\u00e2n i\u00e7inde bir arada olu\u015fu\u00adnun de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda zaman i\u00e7inde s\u00fcr\u00fcp gidi\u015finin de bir tarihi bulunmak zorundayd\u0131. E\u011fer bir defa bu y\u00f6n\u00adde daha ileri incelemelere kararl\u0131 olarak ba\u015flansayd\u0131, \u015fimdi do\u011fa bilimi, oldu\u011fundan, dikkate de\u011fer \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ile\u00adri giderdi. Fakat felsefeden ne yarar gelebilirdi ki? Kant\u2019\u0131n eseri ilk anda herhangi bir sonu\u00e7 vermedi, y\u0131llar sonra Laplace ve Herschel bu eserin kapsam\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131lar ve bu kapsama daha derin bir temel kazand\u0131rd\u0131lar, b\u00f6ylece \u201cneb\u00fcl\u00f6z varsay\u0131m\u0131n\u0131\u201d (y\u0131ld\u0131z ve gezegenlerin bulut bi\u00e7i\u00adminde bir madde y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131ndan olu\u015ftu\u011fu varsay\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7.) yava\u015f yava\u015f \u015ferefli bir duruma getirdiler. Daha sonraki bulu\u015flar bu varsay\u0131m\u0131 zafere g\u00f6t\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu bulu\u015flar\u0131n en \u00f6nemlileri \u015funlard\u0131: sabit y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc hareketlerinin ke\u015ffi; evrensel mek\u00e2nda bir diren\u00e7 ortam\u0131 bu\u00adlundu\u011funun ortaya konu\u015fu; evren maddesinin kimyasal \u00f6zde\u015fli\u011fini ve Kant\u2019\u0131n \u00f6nerdi\u011fi \u00fczere, kor haline gelmi\u015f neb\u00fcl\u00f6z\u00fcn mevcudiyetini ortaya koyan spektral analizi yoluyla desteklenmi\u015f kan\u0131t (9)<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    Ad\u0131m ad\u0131m \u2018de\u011fi\u015fim\u2019 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine\u2026<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

    Bir ba\u015fka yerden destek alan, do\u011fan\u0131n salt var ol\u00admad\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong>, fakat hayata kavu\u015ftu\u011fu<\/strong> ve sonra \u00f6ld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc<\/strong> yollu kavram ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmasayd\u0131, do\u011fa bilginlerinin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n, de\u011fi\u015fen bir d\u00fcnyan\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmeyen organizma\u00adlar yaratmas\u0131ndaki \u00e7eli\u015fkinin bilincine, k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre i\u00e7inde var\u0131p varamayacaklar\u0131ndan \u015f\u00fcphe etmek gerekirdi. Jeoloji ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f ve sadece biri \u00f6tekinden sonra bi\u00e7imlenmi\u015f ve biri \u00f6tekinin \u00fcst\u00fcne gelmi\u015f d\u00fcnya katlar\u0131\u00adn\u0131 g\u00f6stermekle kalmam\u0131\u015f, ayn\u0131 zamanda bu d\u00fcnya katlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda art\u0131k soyu t\u00fckenmi\u015f hayvanlar\u0131n iskeletle\u00adri ve kabuklar\u0131 ve art\u0131k var olmayan bitkilerin g\u00f6vdele\u00adri, yapraklar\u0131 ve meyveleri bulundu\u011funu da ortaya koy\u00admu\u015ftur. Bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak sadece d\u00fcnyan\u0131n de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda onun \u015fimdiki y\u00fczeyinin ve bu y\u00fczeyde ya\u015fayan bitki ve hayvanlar\u0131n da zaman i\u00e7inde bir tarihi oldu\u00ad\u011funu kabul etme karar\u0131na var\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu teslimiyet, \u00f6n\u00adce, hayli g\u00f6n\u00fcls\u00fcz olmu\u015ftur. Cuvier\u2019in, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fi\u00admi (revolutions of the earth<\/strong>) kuram\u0131, s\u00f6zde devrimci, fa\u00adkat \u00f6zde tutucu idi. Cuvier, mucizeyi do\u011fan\u0131n h\u00e2kim mekanizmas\u0131 haline getirerek, bir tek il\u00e2h\u00ee yaratman\u0131n yerine, birbiri ard\u0131nca gelen bir dizi yaratma hareketini koy\u00admu\u015ftur. Lyell, ilk defa jeolojide, yarat\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n mizac\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 ani de\u011fi\u015fiklik yerine, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n yava\u015f yava\u015f olu\u015fu\u00admunun derece derece artan etkileri anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 getirmi\u015f\u00adtir (10).<\/p>\n

    Lyell\u2019in kuram\u0131, kendisinden \u00f6nce gelenlerden her\u00adhangi birinin kuram\u0131na g\u00f6re, de\u011fi\u015fmez organik t\u00fcrler varsay\u0131m\u0131 ile daha \u00e7ok uyu\u015fmazl\u0131k g\u00f6steriyordu. D\u00fcn\u00adyan\u0131n y\u00fczeyinin ve b\u00fct\u00fcn hayat \u015fartlar\u0131n\u0131n derece dere\u00adce bi\u00e7imleni\u015fi, organizmalar\u0131n bi\u00e7imleni\u015finin ve de\u011fi\u015fen \u00e7evreye uymalar\u0131n\u0131n derece derece oldu\u011fu [fikrine \u00e7.], t\u00fcrlerin de\u011fi\u015febilirli\u011fi [fikrine -\u00e7.] g\u00f6t\u00fcrd\u00fc. Fakat gele\u00adnek, sadece Katolik kilisesinde de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda do\u011fa biliminde de bir g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fcr. Y\u0131llar y\u0131l\u0131 Lyell \u00e7eli\u015fkiyi g\u00f6rmedi, onun \u00f6\u011frencileri de hen\u00fcz yeterli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde g\u00f6remiyorlar. Bu, sadece, bir s\u00fcreden beri do\u011fa bilimine egemen olan ve her ki\u015fiyi, az \u00e7ok kendi alan\u0131na ba\u011flayan i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc ile a\u00e7\u0131klanabilir. O zaman, kapsaml\u0131 bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015ften yoksun olanlar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131 pek azd\u0131.<\/p>\n

    Bu arada fizik, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir geli\u015fime ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Do\u011fa biliminin bu dal\u0131nda yeni bir \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 olan 1842 y\u0131l\u0131nda, fizi\u011fin vard\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar, \u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 ki\u015fi taraf\u0131ndan, hemen hemen kendili\u011finden toparlan\u0131p \u00f6zetlenmi\u015fti. Heilbronn\u2019da Mayer ve Manchester\u2019de ise Joule, \u0131s\u0131n\u0131n mekanik g\u00fcce ve mekanik g\u00fcc\u00fcn \u0131s\u0131ya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc or\u00adtaya koydular. Is\u0131n\u0131n mekanik e\u015fde\u011ferlili\u011finin tespiti, bu sonucu kesinle\u015ftirdi. Meslekten do\u011fa bilgini de\u011fil bir avu\u00adkat olan \u0130ngiliz Grove (11) da fizi\u011fin o zamana kadar ula\u015f\u00adt\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar \u00fczerinde kendi ba\u015f\u0131na ve \u00f6tekilerden ayr\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak, fizik g\u00fc\u00e7ler denen \u015feylerin, mekanik g\u00fcc\u00fcn, \u0131s\u0131n\u0131n, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n, elektri\u011fin ve m\u0131knat\u0131s\u0131yetin, hatta ger\u00e7ekte kimyasal g\u00fc\u00e7 denen \u015feyin, belli \u015fartlar alt\u0131nda, herhangi bir g\u00fc\u00e7 kayb\u0131na u\u011framaks\u0131z\u0131n birbirine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ka\u00adn\u0131tlad\u0131. B\u00f6ylece, Descartes\u2019\u0131n \u015fimdi d\u00fcnyada mevcut ha\u00adreket niceli\u011finin de\u011fi\u015fmez oldu\u011fu yolundaki ilkesini de fiziksel olarak kan\u0131tlad\u0131. Bununla, \u00f6zel fizik g\u00fc\u00e7ler, fizi\u00ad\u011fin g\u00fcya de\u011fi\u015fmez \u201ct\u00fcrleri\u201d, maddenin, belli yasalara g\u00f6re, birbirine ge\u00e7en de\u011fi\u015fik, farkl\u0131 hareket bi\u00e7imlerine ay\u00adr\u0131ld\u0131. \u015eu ya da bu bir dizi fizik g\u00fcc\u00fcn varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n tesad\u00fcfi oldu\u011fu [g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc \u00e7.], bu g\u00fc\u00e7lerin i\u00e7 ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131 ve d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u00adm\u00fcn\u00fcn kan\u0131tlanmas\u0131yla bilimden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131p at\u0131ld\u0131. Kendi\u00adsinden \u00f6nce astronomide oldu\u011fu gibi, fizik, niha\u00ee karar olarak, hareket halindeki maddenin ebed\u00ee devrine zorun\u00adlu bi\u00e7imde ula\u015fan bir sonuca vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

    Lavoisier\u2019den ve \u00f6zellikle Dalton\u2019dan bu yana kimya\u00adn\u0131n fevkal\u00e2de bir h\u0131zla geli\u015fimi, do\u011fa hakk\u0131ndaki eski fikirlerin \u00fczerine, bir ba\u015fka y\u00f6nden h\u00fccum etti. O zama\u00adna kadar sadece ya\u015fayan organizma i\u00e7inde \u00fcretilen inor\u00adganik kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131n yap\u0131lmas\u0131, kimya yasalar\u0131n\u0131n, organik varl\u0131klar i\u00e7in oldu\u011fu kadar inorganik varl\u0131klar i\u00e7in de ge\u00ad\u00e7erli oldu\u011funu kan\u0131tlad\u0131 ve inorganik ve organik do\u011fa ara\u00ads\u0131ndaki u\u00e7uruma, Kant\u2019\u0131n dahi a\u015f\u0131lamaz g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc u\u00e7uru\u00adma, geni\u015f \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde bir k\u00f6pr\u00fc kuruldu.<\/p>\n

    Nihayet, biyolojik ara\u015ft\u0131rma alan\u0131nda da son y\u00fczy\u0131\u00adl\u0131n [yani 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n] ortalar\u0131ndan itibaren d\u00fczenlenen bilimsel geziler, Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fcnyan\u0131n d\u00f6rt bir k\u00f6\u015fesindeki s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerinin, orada ya\u015fayan uzmanlar taraf\u0131ndan da\u00adha derin ke\u015ffedilmesi ve b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde genel\u00adlikle paleontoloji, anatomi ve fizyolojideki geli\u015fmeler ve \u00f6zellikle mikroskobun kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 ve h\u00fccrenin ke\u015ffi, kar\u00ad\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma y\u00f6nteminin uygulanmas\u0131n\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn ve ayn\u0131 za\u00admanda vazge\u00e7ilmez hale sokan bir y\u0131\u011f\u0131n malzemenin toplanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flad\u0131 (12). Bir yandan, de\u011fi\u015fik bitki ve hayvan\u00adlar\u0131n hayat \u015fartlan kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 fizik\u00ee co\u011frafya yoluyla ortaya kondu, \u00f6te yandan birbirine benzer organlara g\u00f6re, de\u011fi\u015fik organizmalar birbiriyle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131 ve bu, organizmalar\u0131n sadece olgunluk \u015fartlar\u0131nda de\u011fil, fakat geli\u015fmelerinin b\u00fct\u00fcn a\u015famalar\u0131nda yap\u0131ld\u0131. Bu ara\u015ft\u0131r\u00adma daha derin ve daha kesin bir hal ald\u0131k\u00e7a, organik ya\u00adp\u0131ya s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya yap\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f kat\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fmezlik sistemi de gi\u00adderek y\u0131k\u0131ld\u0131. Sadece farkl\u0131 bitki ve hayvan t\u00fcrleri gittik\u00ad\u00e7e ayr\u0131lmaz \u015fekilde, birbirine kar\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f hale gelmekle kalmad\u0131lar, o zamana kadarki b\u00fct\u00fcn s\u0131n\u0131flamalar\u0131 anlams\u0131z hale getiren Amphioxus<\/strong> ve Lepidosiren<\/strong> (13) gibi hayvanlar da bulundu (14) ve nihayet, bitki ya da hayvan \u00e2leminden hangisine ait oldu\u011fu belirlenemeyen organizmalara rast\u00adland\u0131. Paleontolojideki bo\u015fluklar, bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak organik d\u00fcnyan\u0131n geli\u015fim tarihi ile bireysel organizmin geli\u015fim tarihi aras\u0131nda \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 paralelli\u011fin do\u011frulu\u011funu, botanik ve zoolojinin i\u00e7inde gittik\u00e7e kaybolacakm\u0131\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u00ad\u011f\u00fc labirentin \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f yolunu g\u00f6steren Ariadne\u2019nin ipli\u011finin (15) hakk\u0131n\u0131 vermeye en g\u00f6n\u00fcls\u00fczleri dahi zorlayarak dolduruldu. Kant\u2019\u0131n, g\u00fcne\u015f sisteminin ebed\u00ee ve ezel\u00ee olu\u00ad\u015fu [fikrine \u00e7.] sald\u0131r\u0131ya ge\u00e7i\u015fi ile, hemen hemen ayn\u0131 y\u0131l\u00adlarda, 1759\u2019da, C. F. Wolff\u2019un da t\u00fcrlerin sabitli\u011fi [fikrine \u00e7.] kar\u015f\u0131 bir sald\u0131r\u0131y\u0131 ba\u015flatm\u0131\u015f ve soy kuram\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koymu\u015f (16) olmas\u0131 dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Fakat, onun davas\u0131nda parlak bir umut olan \u015fey, Oken\u2019in, Lamarck\u2019\u0131n ve Baer\u2019in elinde kesin \u015feklini alm\u0131\u015f ve tam 100 y\u0131l sonra 1859\u2019da Darwin taraf\u0131ndan zafere ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (17). Hemen he\u00admen ayn\u0131 zamanda, b\u00fct\u00fcn organizmalar\u0131n niha\u00ee morfolo\u00adjik par\u00e7as\u0131 olduklar\u0131 esasen ortaya konmu\u015f olan protoplazma ile h\u00fccrenin, organik hayat\u0131n en basit bi\u00e7imi olduk\u00adlar\u0131 kan\u0131tlanarak kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na, canl\u0131 haldeki varl\u0131k\u00adlar\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir. Bu, organik ve inorganik do\u011fa aras\u0131n\u00addaki u\u00e7urumu asgariye indirmekle kalmam\u0131\u015f, ayn\u0131 za\u00admanda, daha \u00f6nce, organizmalar\u0131n soy kuram\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131\u00ads\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcklerden en esasl\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131rm\u0131\u015f\u00adt\u0131r. Yeni do\u011fa g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, belli ba\u015fl\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerinde tamd\u0131: b\u00fct\u00fcn kat\u0131l\u0131klar giderilmi\u015fti, b\u00fct\u00fcn sabitlik ortadan kal\u00add\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ebed\u00ee olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6zellikler ge\u00e7ici hale gelmi\u015fti, do\u011fan\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn, ebed\u00ee ak\u0131m ve d\u00f6ng\u00fcsel bir gidi\u015f i\u00e7inde hareketli bir \u015fey oldu\u011fu g\u00f6sterilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

    B\u00f6ylece, Yunan felsefesinin b\u00fcy\u00fck kurucular\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f tarz\u0131na, kum zerreciklerinden g\u00fcne\u015flere, Protista\u2019dan (18) insana kadar, do\u011fan\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn, ezel\u00ee ve ebed\u00ee ha\u00adyata geli\u015f ve gidi\u015fte, kesintisiz bir ak\u0131mda, bitmek bil\u00admez bir hareket ve de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7inde varl\u0131\u011fa sahip oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne, bir kere daha d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015f oluyoruz. Sadece esas\u00adl\u0131 bir fark var: Yunanl\u0131larda parlak bir sezgi olan \u015fey \u015fimdi bizim meselemizde, deneyle peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f kesin bir bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n sonucudur ve daha kesin, daha a\u00e7\u0131k bi\u00e7imde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6ng\u00fcsel gidi\u015fin deney\u00adsel (ampirik) kan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n bo\u015fluklar\u0131 oldu\u011fu do\u011frudur, fa\u00adkat, kesinlikle ortaya konan \u015feylere bak\u0131\u015fla bu bo\u015fluklar \u00f6nemsizdir ve her ge\u00e7en y\u0131l [bu bo\u015fluklar \u00e7.] doldurulmaktad\u0131r. Ve bilimin en \u00f6nemli dallar\u0131n\u0131n -gezegenler \u00f6tesi astronominin, kimyan\u0131n, jeolojinin- yaln\u0131zca bir y\u00fczy\u0131ll\u0131k bilimsel bir varl\u0131\u011fa sahip oldu\u011fu, fizyolojideki kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 y\u00f6ntemin sadece elli y\u0131ll\u0131k bir ge\u00e7mi\u015fi bu\u00adlundu\u011fu ve hemen hemen t\u00fcm organik geli\u015fmenin temel bi\u00e7imi h\u00fccrenin ke\u015ffinden bu yana k\u0131rk y\u0131l dahi ge\u00e7me\u00addi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcrse, ayr\u0131nt\u0131lardaki kan\u0131tta bo\u015fluklar olma\u00ads\u0131n\u0131 ola\u011fan kar\u015f\u0131lamak gerekmez mi?<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    D\u0130PNOTLAR<\/strong><\/p>\n

    1) Engels, Luther\u2019in \u201cEin feste Burg ist unser Gott\u201d (\u201cTanr\u0131 bizim sa\u011flam kalemizdir\u201d) adl\u0131 korosuna de\u011finiyor. Zur Geschichte deri Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland<\/em> (Almanya\u2019da Dinin ve Felsefenin Tarihi \u00dczerine) adl\u0131 eserinin ikinci kitab\u0131nda Heine bu koroyu \u201cReformasyonun Marseillaise\u2019i\u201d diye adland\u0131r\u0131yor.<\/p>\n

    2) Copernicus, g\u00fcne\u015f merkezli d\u00fcnya sistemini ortaya koydu\u011fu ve hen\u00fcz bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan De revolutionibus orbium coelestium<\/em> (G\u00f6ksel K\u00fcrelerin Devinimi) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131n\u0131n bir kopyas\u0131n\u0131 ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcn, 24 May\u0131s (eski usulde) 1543\u2019te \u00f6lm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n

    3) Elyazmas\u0131n\u0131n kenar\u0131na Engels kur\u015fun kalemle \u015fu notu koymu\u015ftur: \u201cAlp nehirlerinin kontrol\u00fcne ili\u015fkin olarak Torricelli.\u201d<\/p>\n

    4) 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l kimyac\u0131lar\u0131 ate\u015flenmeyi, ate\u015flenebilir cisimlerde filojiston maddesinin bulunmas\u0131na y\u00fckl\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Bu maddeyi ta\u015f\u0131yan cisimlerin onu yanma s\u0131ras\u0131nda b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 san\u0131yorlard\u0131. Ama bilindi\u011fi gibi, filojistik kuram\u0131n savunucular\u0131 fiziksel bak\u0131mdan sa\u00e7ma bir a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bulunan filojistona dalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ate\u015flenme s\u00fcrecini yanan bir maddenin oksijenle birlikte g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi tepki diye do\u011fru olarak a\u00e7\u0131klam\u0131\u015f bulunan Frans\u0131z kimyac\u0131s\u0131 Lavoisier taraf\u0131ndan bu kuram\u0131n m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ispatlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Filojistik kuram\u0131n zaman\u0131nda oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yararl\u0131 rol, \u201cAnti-D\u00fchring\u2019e Eski \u00d6ns\u00f6z\u201d\u00fcn sonunda Engels taraf\u0131ndan belirtilmi\u015ftir. Kendisi bu kuram\u0131, Kapital<\/em>\u2019in ikinci cildine yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6ns\u00f6zde geni\u015f olarak ele al\u0131r.<\/p>\n

    5) Kant\u2019\u0131n g\u00fcne\u015f sisteminin bir neb\u00fcl\u00f6zden meydana geldi\u011fini ileri s\u00fcren varsay\u0131m\u0131 \u015fu eserde ortaya konur: I. Kant, Evrensel Do\u011fa Tarihi ve G\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fc Kuram\u0131 ya da Newton \u0130lkelerine G\u00f6re Evrenin Yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ve Mekanik K\u00f6keninin Ge\u00e7ici Bir Tan\u0131mlamas\u0131<\/em>, K\u00f6nigsberg ve Leipzig, 1755. Kitap anonim bir yay\u0131nd\u0131.<\/p>\n

    Laplace taraf\u0131ndan geli\u015ftirilen g\u00fcne\u015f sisteminin meydana geli\u015fi varsay\u0131m\u0131 \u00f6nce onun D\u00fcnya Sisteminin Konu\u015fu<\/em> eserinin son b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde anlat\u0131l\u0131yordu. Kitab\u0131n 6. bas\u0131m\u0131nda (1835) bu sonuncu k\u0131s\u0131m Laplace\u2019\u0131n ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u0131rada bas\u0131m i\u00e7in haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve varsay\u0131m 7. bas\u0131m bi\u00e7iminde ve esere bir not olarak ortaya konur.<\/p>\n

    1864\u2019de \u0130ngiliz astronomu William Huggins, uzayda Kant ve Laplace\u2019\u0131n neb\u00fcl\u00f6z varsay\u0131m\u0131nda belirtilen ilk neb\u00fcl\u00f6ze benzer \u0131s\u0131t\u0131lm\u0131\u015f gaz halindeki maddelerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tahlil yolu ile ispatlad\u0131.\u00a0 Huggins, 1859\u2019da G. Kirchhoff ve R. Bunsen\u2019in geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi bir spektral analiz metodundan yararland\u0131.<\/p>\n

    6) Elyazmas\u0131n\u0131n kenar\u0131nda kur\u015fun kalemle yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u015f\u00f6yle bir not var: \u201cDo\u011fa \u00fczerindeki eski g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn kat\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, b\u00fct\u00fcn do\u011fa bilimlerinin tek bir b\u00fct\u00fcn ola\u00adrak anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7an bir inanc\u0131n temellerini yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. H\u00e2l\u00e2 salt me\u00adkanik Frans\u0131z ansiklopedistler; daha sonra, Hegel taraf\u0131ndan tamamlanan, St. Simon ve Alman do\u011fa felsefesi.\u201d<\/p>\n

    7) Bilimsel ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131, bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ortadan kald\u0131rmak gerekirken, o bilim\u00adsel ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131yla hayli \u00f6nemli bir malzeme sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f olan bir insan\u0131n hatta 1861\u2019de bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe nas\u0131l inatla sar\u0131labilece\u011fi, \u015fu klasik s\u00f6zlerde g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir: \u201cG\u00fcne\u015f sistemimizin d\u00fczenleni\u015fi, anlayabildi\u011fimiz kadar\u0131yla, mevcut olan \u015feyi ve de\u011fi\u015fmez s\u00fcreklili\u011fi koruma amac\u0131na y\u00f6nelmi\u015ftir. En eski zamanlardan be\u00adri yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki hi\u00e7bir hayvan\u0131n ve hi\u00e7bir bitkinin daha m\u00fckemmel ya da her\u00adhangi bir bi\u00e7imde farkl\u0131 olmamas\u0131 gibi, b\u00fct\u00fcn organizmalarda birbirini izleyen de\u011fil, birbirinin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra yer alan a\u015famalar bulmam\u0131z gibi, kendi soyumuzun v\u00fccut\u00e7a her zaman ayn\u0131 kalmas\u0131 gibi – bir arada var olan g\u00f6ksel cisimlerde\u00adki en b\u00fcy\u00fck farkl\u0131l\u0131klar bile bize, bu bi\u00e7imlerin yaln\u0131zca geli\u015fmenin farkl\u0131 a\u015famalar\u0131 oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmemiz hakk\u0131n\u0131 vermez; bu daha \u00e7ok yarat\u0131lan her \u015feyin kendi i\u00e7inde ayn\u0131 derecede m\u00fckemmel olmas\u0131d\u0131r.\u201d (Madler, Populare Astronomie<\/em>, Berlin, 1861, 5. bask\u0131, s. 316.) [Engels\u2019in notu]<\/p>\n

    8) Engels, Newton\u2019un Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy<\/em> adl\u0131 temel eserinin ikinci bask\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n sonunda belirtti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131yor. \u201cBundan dolay\u0131\u201d diye yaz\u0131yordu Newton, \u201cg\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fcn ve denizin olaylar\u0131n\u0131 yer\u00e7ekimi g\u00fcc\u00fc ile a\u00e7\u0131klamakla birlikte, bu g\u00fcc\u00fcn sebebini hen\u00fcz saptamad\u0131k\u2026\u201d Newton yer\u00e7ekiminin baz\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerini sayd\u0131ktan sonra \u015f\u00f6yle devam ediyor: \u201cAma bundan dolay\u0131 da yer\u00e7ekiminin bu \u00f6zelliklerinin sebebini olaylardan ortaya \u00e7\u0131karamad\u0131m ve bir varsay\u0131m veremedim; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc olaydan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lamayan \u015feylere varsay\u0131m deniyor. \u0130ster metafiziksel ya da fiziksel, ister niteliklerle ilgili ya da mekaniksel olsun, varsay\u0131mlar\u0131n deneysel felsefede yeri yoktur. Bu felsefede \u00f6zel \u00f6nermeler olaylardan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131r ve daha sonra da t\u00fcmevar\u0131mla genel olarak belirtilirler.\u201d<\/p>\n

    Hegel, Newton\u2019un bu s\u00f6zlerine dayanarak Felsefi Bilimler Ansiklopedisi<\/em> eserinde \u015f\u00f6yle diyordu: \u201cNewton\u2026 metafizikten sak\u0131nmas\u0131 i\u00e7in fizi\u011fe uyar\u0131da bulundu,\u201d<\/p>\n

    9) Elyazmas\u0131n\u0131n kenar\u0131na kur\u015fun kalemle \u015fu not konmu\u015ftur: \u201cYine Kant\u2019tan, met ve cezir\u2019in (gel git\u2019in) d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fc geciktirdi\u011fi esas\u0131 da \u015fimdi anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f\u00adt\u0131r.\u201d<\/p>\n

    10) Lyell\u2019in g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn eksikli\u011fi -hi\u00e7 de\u011filse ilk bi\u00e7iminde- d\u00fcnyada hare\u00adket halinde olan g\u00fc\u00e7leri, hem nitelik, hem nicelik y\u00f6n\u00fcnden de\u011fi\u015fmez olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmesindedir. Onun y\u00f6n\u00fcnden d\u00fcnya sakin de\u011fildir; d\u00fcnya belli bir y\u00f6n\u00adde geli\u015fmez, belli bir sonuca g\u00f6t\u00fcrmeyen tesad\u00fcfi bir yolda de\u011fi\u015fir. [Engels\u2019in notu.]<\/p>\n

    11) Grove\u2019un The Correlation of Physical Forces<\/em> adl\u0131 eseri ilk \u00f6nce 1846\u2019da bas\u0131ld\u0131. Eser, Grove\u2019un Londra Enstit\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019nde Ocak 1842\u2019de verdi\u011fi ve k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra yay\u0131nlanan bir konferans\u0131na dayan\u0131yordu. Engels, bunun, 1855\u2019te Londra\u2019da yay\u0131nlanan \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc bask\u0131s\u0131ndan yararland\u0131.<\/p>\n

    12) Elyazmas\u0131n\u0131n kinar\u0131na kur\u015fun kalemle \u201cEmbriyoloji\u201d eklenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

    13) Amphioxus<\/strong> (Ne\u015fter Bal\u0131\u011f\u0131): K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck (5 cm kadar uzunlu\u011funda) bal\u0131\u011fa benzer bir hayvan, \u00e7e\u015fitli denizlerde ve okyanuslarda (Hint Okyanusu, Pasifik Okyanusu\u2019nun Malaya adalar grubu ve Japonya k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131nda, Akdeniz\u2019de, Karadeniz\u2019de v.) g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr; omurgas\u0131zlarla omurgal\u0131lar aras\u0131ndaki ge\u00e7i\u015f bi\u00e7imini temsil eder.<\/p>\n

    Lepidosiren: G\u00fcney Amerika\u2019da ya\u015fayan, akci\u011ferli bal\u0131klardan ya da \u00e7ift yanl\u0131 soluk alanlardan, yani hem ci\u011ferleri ve hem de solunga\u00e7lar\u0131 bulunan bal\u0131klardand\u0131r; hayat\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 su d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ge\u00e7irir.<\/p>\n

    14) Elyazmas\u0131n\u0131n kenar\u0131na kur\u015fun kalemle \u201cCeratodus, keza Archaeop feryx, vb.\u201d[18] eklenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

    15) Ariadne\u2019nin ipli\u011fi: Yunan mitolojisine g\u00f6re, Minos\u2019un k\u0131z\u0131 Ariadne. Theseus\u2019u labirentten kurtarmak i\u00e7in, ona bir ip yuma\u011f\u0131 vermi\u015f ve Theseus\u2019 la birlikte ka\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, ancak Theseus Ariadne\u2019yi terk etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

    16) \u00a01759\u2019da C. F. Wolff, epigenez kuram\u0131n\u0131 desteklemek i\u00e7in bilimsel kan\u0131t sa\u011flayan ve preformasyon \u00f6\u011fretisini \u00e7\u00fcr\u00fcten \u201cKu\u015fak Kuram\u0131\u201d tezini yay\u0131nlad\u0131. Preformasyon, yeti\u015fkin organizman\u0131n \u00e7ekirdek h\u00fccresinde \u00f6rcedoen bi\u00e7imlenmesi demektir. 17. ve 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n biyologlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yayg\u0131n olan metafiziksel preformizm g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne g\u00f6re, yeti\u015fkin organizman\u0131n her k\u0131sm\u0131, \u00e7ekirdek h\u00fccreye indirgenmi\u015f bi\u00e7imde \u00f6nceden vard\u0131r ve bundan dolay\u0131 geli\u015fme, \u00f6nceden var olan organlar\u0131n niceliksel b\u00fcy\u00fcmesidir; kelimenin tam anlam\u0131nda, yeni bi\u00e7imle\u015fme ya da epigenez asla olmaz.\u00a0 Epigenez kuram\u0131 Wolff\u2019tan Darwin\u2019e kadar bir\u00e7ok \u00f6nde gelen biyologlar taraf\u0131ndan geli\u015ftirilmi\u015f ve desteklenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

    17) On The Origin of Species<\/em>, 24 Kas\u0131m 1859\u2019da yay\u0131nland\u0131.<\/p>\n

    18) Protista, Haeckel\u2019in s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmas\u0131na g\u00f6re, tek h\u00fccreli ve h\u00fccresizlerden meydana gelen ilkel organizmalar\u0131n yayg\u0131n bir grubudur ve bitkilere ve hayvanlara ek olarak organik hayat\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc dal\u0131n\u0131 meydana getirir. Protista terimi Haeckel taraf\u0131ndan icat edildi ama bilimde yerle\u015fmedi. Bug\u00fcn Haeckel\u2019in protista olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc organizmalar ya bitkiler ya da hayvanlar olarak s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    \u00a0 \u00a0B\u00f6ylece, Yunan felsefesinin b\u00fcy\u00fck kurucular\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f tarz\u0131na, kum zerreciklerinden g\u00fcne\u015flere, do\u011fan\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn, ezel\u00ee ve ebed\u00ee ha\u00adyata geli\u015f ve gidi\u015fte, kesintisiz bir ak\u0131mda, bitmek bil\u00admez bir hareket ve de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7inde varl\u0131\u011fa sahip oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne, bir kere daha d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015f oluyoruz. Sadece esas\u00adl\u0131 bir fark var: Yunanl\u0131larda parlak bir sezgi olan \u015fey \u015fimdi bizim meselemizde, deneyle peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":311,"featured_media":9209,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[98,38,1],"tags":[482],"class_list":["post-9208","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-60-sayi","category-dergi-sayilari","category-genel","tag-bilim"],"acf":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t